Encoding and Consolidation in Long Term Memory

Question 1

3 Main Stages of Memory

Answer 1

Encoding:
Input to memory, the transformation/conversion of sensory information into a memory
representation (i.e., initial registration of information that leads to the formation of
memories)
Storage:
Maintenance of long-term representations of memories (i.e., memory traces or engrams),
which involves a process of consolidation that stabilizes memory traces
Memory Trace: Change in our brain that represents experience
Consolidation: Neural changes that occur after encoding to create a memory trace.
Retrieval: Output of memory, process of reactivating a memory trace and bringing it back to an
active state in working memory

Question 2

Levels of Processing (LOP)

Answer 2

Craik & Lockhart (1972)
• Processing of information (rather than structure) of memory
is critical
• How well an item is subsequently remembered is not related
to rehearsal but the level, or the depth, to which it is
processed
• Processing operations both modify and leave a memory
trace
• Items are not constructed to be remembered but memories
are the after-effects of processing

Question 3

Issues with Levels of Processing

Answer 3

Craik & Lockhart (1972)
• Elaboration is a widely used memory aid
– Mind maps, methods of loci (using a “mental walk”)
• Descriptive rather than explanatory

Question 4

Transfer Appropriate Processing

Answer 4

Processing is goal directed
Memory performance is better if the type of processing that
occurs during encoding is the same at retrieval
A “shallow” processing task might be better if retrieval uses
the same type of “shallow” processing

Question 5

Encoding Specificity

Answer 5

Thomsen & Tulving (1973)
Effective retrieval cues are determined by the encoding operations
performed on stimuli
Information stored in memory with the context in which it was
learnt
Better “match” between retrieval cues and the encoding context
improves memory

Question 6

Evidence for Encoding Specificity

Answer 6

Task: Study different sized lists of
words with 1, 2 or 4 categories (e.g.,
Birds: Robin, Canaries, Seagull, etc.)
Two different test of memory:
1. Free Recall: Recall the words
2. Cued Recall: Recall the words
from the Bird, Fruit, etc.
categories
Results: More words were recalled
in the cued-recall compared to the
free recall condition, especially for
longer word lists

Question 7

Context Dependent Memory

Answer 7

Godden & Baddeley (1975)
Task: Study lists of words on land or
under sea
Then, a recognition memory test for the
words occurred on land or under sea
Results: Crossover interaction!
• Words studied on land were better
recognized if tested on land.
• Words studied in sea were better
recognized if tested under sea

Question 8

Organisational Strategies

Answer 8

Task: Two groups of participants.
1. Organised Group: study four separate organisational “trees” (minerals,
animals, clothing, transportation)
2. Unorganised Group: study four trees of randomised words
Both groups tested on word recall.
Results: Organised group recalled more words (72 correct) than unorganised
group (21 correct).

Question 9

Self-Generated Cues

Answer 9

Mantyla (1986)
Task: Participants wrote “cues” for 504 separate words, then given a
surprise cued-recall test in which they were given cues and had to
identify the word.
Two Retrieval Groups:
1. Shown their own cues
2. Shown someone else’s cues
3. Control group that had not studied the words
Results: Participants who were shown their own
cues had near perfect memory, 90% correct!!

Question 10

Distributed vs. Mass Learning

Answer 10

Task: Three encoding tasks for word pairs
(“castle – handbag”)
1. Distributed learning (DL)
2. Massed learning (ML; aka cramming)
3. Single session only (SS)
Study took place over three days:
Day 1: 1st encoding of DL items
Day 2: 2nd encoding of DL items
 1st and 2nd encoding of ML items
 Encoding of SS items
 Recognition Test 1 for half of the items
Day 3: Recognition Test 2 for other half of the items

Results:

1. SS learning is always worst
2. DL & ML memory same in Test 1
3. ML memory worst than DL in Test 2

Question 11

Standard Model of Consolidation

Answer 11

Memories become more stable overtime, and are stored in different brain systems.
Predictions:
• Declarative memory (both episodic & semantic) depends on the hippocampus for
retention in the recent past
• All amnesic patients with hippocampal damage have anterograde amnesia
• Remote declarative memory (both episodic & semantic) depend on cortical areas
outside the hippocampus

Question 12

Issues with Standard Model of Consolidation

Answer 12

Amnesics can acquire new semantic knowledge in some
circumstances
Evidence of spared retrograde amnesia for semantic memories
despite severe loss of episodic memories
Spared remote episodic memories may not be truly episodic
Also, decades long memory consolidation doesn’t seem very adaptive

Question 13

Multiple Trace Theory

Answer 13

Each time a memory is retrieved a new memory trace is created, so that remote memories are stronger than recent ones
Predictions:
• Episodic memories, particularly vivid ones, always depend on the hippocampus
• Semantic memories become gradually stored in the cortex
If remote episodic memory is spared, it is because some hippocampal
tissue is still functioning – older memories have more traces so they are more robust to injury

Question 14

Issues with Multiple Trace Theory

Answer 14

Evidence of spared retrograde amnesia for vivid episodic
memories memories when damage is restricted to the medial
temporal lobe (MTL)
à Previous studies did not control for extent of brain damage