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Pathophysiology > Endocrine: Module I > Flashcards

Endocrine: Module I Flashcards

1
Q

What are the primary organs of the endocrine system?

A 
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland (hypophysis)
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Gonads
Placenta
*Hormones also secreted from other organs such as heart, kidney, GI...
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2
Q

What are the 4 functions of the Endocrine system?

A
  1. Homeostasis
  2. Control of the storage and utilization of energy substrates
  3. Regulation of growth, development, and reproduction
  4. Regulates the body’s response to environmental stimuli
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3
Q

Compare/contrast the actions of the endocrine system with the actions of the nervous system

A

Actions of endocrine system are:

  • -> slower in response
  • -> have a prolonged response
  • -> more “diffuse”
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4
Q

What are the 3 components of the endocrine system?

A
  1. Endocrine Glands
  2. Target Organs
  3. Hormones
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5
Q

Endocrine glands are….

A

ductless glands that secrete hormones into the blood stream

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6
Q

Target organs…

A

contain cells with receptors that have hormone specific receptors

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7
Q

Define hormones

A

Chemical messengers released by one cell and exert a biological action on a target cell

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8
Q

Describe how hormones work at different target tissues to mediate function

A
  1. A single hormone can facilitate multiple effects

2. A single physiological function can be regulated by multiple hormones

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9
Q

Name an example of a hormone that elicits different effects on different target tissue

A

Epinephrine

At alpha receptors in intestine: constriction
At beta receptors in skeletel muscle: dilation
At beta receptors in liver: glycolysis

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10
Q

Blood pressure is influenced by …

A

ADH, aldosterone, epinephrine, and more.

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11
Q

Name the 4 types of hormone signaling

A
  1. Endocrine
  2. Paracrine
  3. Autocrine
  4. Intracrine
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12
Q

Endocrine signaling

A

Classically referred toa s the endocrine system

Target tissue = distance

hormones travel through the blood stream to reach target tissue

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13
Q

Example of endocrine signaling

A

Insulin

Thyroid hormones

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14
Q

Paracrine signaling

A

Target tissue = “local” or immediate nearby cells

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15
Q

A hormone that travels through the blood stream to reach its target tissue is the definition of ______ _______.

A

Endocrine signaling

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16
Q

A hormone that is released by one cell and acts locally on a nearby cell is an example of _____ ______.

A

Paracrine signaling

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17
Q

List 5 examples of paracrine signaling

A
  1. Nitric oxide
  2. Bradykinin
  3. Neurotransmitters
  4. Cytokines
  5. Prostaglandins
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18
Q

What does nitric oxide promote?

A

BV Vasodilation

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19
Q

Describe the actions of bradykinin

A

Promote BV vasodilation

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20
Q

Describe cytokines function

A

Immunoregulating and growth function

Contain interleukins, TNF (tumor necrosis factor), interferon, growth factors, TGF (transforming growth factors, etc

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21
Q

____ are fatty acids produced in most organs

A

Prostaglandins

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22
Q

What are the 6 main functions of prostaglandins?

A
  1. Smooth muscle - contraction/relaxation depending on receptor type/tissue
  2. Inflammatory response throughout tissues in the body
  3. Pain
  4. Kidney: mesangial cells contract and alter GFR
  5. Hypothalamus: termoregulatory nuclei produce fever
  6. Mediate platelet aggregation/disaggregation
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23
Q

______ decrease inflammation via prostaglandins.

A

NSAIDs

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24
Q

Autocrine signaling

A

Target tissue = same cell

Hormone is released by a cell and then acts on the same cell that released it

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25
Intracrine signaling
Hormone produced in a cell that acts WITHIN the cell itself
26
Example of intacrine signaling
1. Steroid action | 2. Malignant pathways
27
Describe negative feedback using the example of insulin secretion.
When insulin is released, blood glucose is decreased. The decreased blood glucose inhibits further insulin release
28
What are the two variations of negative feedback loops
1. Inc. levels of hormone inhibit the hormone's releasing factor 2. Inc. levels of hormone inhibit the hormone's releasing factor AND stimulate hormone's inhibiting factor
29
Positive feedback is rare. Describe a popular example of positive feedback
LH (luteinizing hormone) Increased estrogen stimulates release of LH....LH in turn stimulates release of estrogen from ovaries
30
Hormones are classified by _______ or ________.
Derivative content | Solubility
31
What are the 4 types of derivative content hormones?
1. Amino acid derivatives 2. Peptide/protein derivatives 3. Steroid derivatives 4. Fatty acid derivatives - eicosanoids
32
What are the two types of solubility hormones?
1. Lipid soluble (lipophilic) | 2. Water soluble (hydrophilic)
33
What are two type of lipid soluble (lipophilic) hormones?
Steroid hormones and thyroid hormones
34
_____ is a precursor for all of the steroid hormones
Cholesterol
35
Describe the half life of lipid soluble hormones
They circulate in plasma via binding to plasma proteins thus having a longer half life (hours to days) because they don't break down as easily *This hormone/protein carrier disassociate at target tissues
36
Describe the half life of water soluble hormones
They circulate "freely" in plasma so they are easily broken down and thus have a shorter half life (1-30 mins)
37
Are hormone receptors fixed or changing?
CHANGING!!
38
Up-regulation: what is it and what is the net result?
When low concentrations of a hormone will increase the number of receptors on target tissue Net result = increased sensitivity to hormone
39
Down-regulation: what is it and what is the net result?
High concentrations of hormone will decrease number of receptors on the target tissue Net result: decreased sensitivity to hormone
40
Where are hormone receptors located?
On cell membrane or within cell itself (either in cytosol or nucleus)
41
In response to regular exercise when cells become more sensitive to insulin is an example of ______ regulation
Up regulation
42
In response to a sedentary lifestyle and obesity when cells become less sensitive to insulin is an example of ___ regulation
Down regulation
43
The process by which extracellular signals (hormones) are communicated into a cell
Signal Transduction
44
What are the two types of signal transduction?
1. Primary messenger "First messenger" | 2. Secondary messenger
45
Where are target tissue receptors located for primary messengers?
Located within the cell itself
46
What type of hormones use primary messengers?
Fat soluble | --> they can easily diffuse across cell membranes to communicate to receptors within the cell
47
What is a secondary messenger?
It is the "link" between primary messenger (hormone) and inside of the cell
48
How do secondary messengers work?
Hormone attaches to receptor on cell membrane which produces SECONDARY MESSENGERS to communicate to structures inside the cell
49
What type of hormones require secondary messengers? Why?
Water soluble They can't diffuse across membrane
50
What are some examples (3) of secondary messengers?
1. cAMP 2. calcium 3. cGMP
51
What is the hypophyseal portal system?
Capillaries in hypothalamus communicate with pituitary capillaries before entering venous system
52
Describe the general schematic of the anterior pituitary
Hypothalamus releases "pituitary releasing hormones" that descend through hypophyseal portal system. Most hormones from hypothalamus stimulate or inhibit release of pituitary hormones
53
Describe the general schematic of the posterior pituitary
Hypothalamic nuclei synthesize pituitary hormones that descend to pituitary via direct neural connection to posterior pituitary
54
What are the 2 hormones produced in the posterior pituitary?
ADH | Oxytocin
55
The hypothalamus "links" ____ to _____ _______.
CNS | Endocrine system
56
Where is the hypothalamus located?
Diencephalon of CNS
57
Name the 8 hormones released from hypothalamus that control anterior pituitary gland
1. TRH 2. GnRH 3. Somatostatin 4. GHRH 5. CRH 6. Substance-P 7. Dopamine 8. PRF
58
Thyrotropin releasing hormone (____) __________ the release of: _________.
TRH Stimulates TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone
59
GnRH (_______) ______ the release of _______ and _______.
Gonadotropin releasing hormone Stimulates - LU (luteinizing hormone) - FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)
60
Somatostatin ______ the release of _____ and ______.
GH (somatotropin) | TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone)
61
GHRH (_______) ______ the release of ______.
Growth hormone releasing hormones GH (growth hormones)
62
CRH (________) ______ the release of _____ and _____.
Corticotropin releasing hormone ACTH (adrenocorticoptropic hormone) Beta-endorphin
63
Substance-P _______ synthesis/release of _____ and ____ release of ____, ____, ____, and ____.
``` Inhibits ACTH (adrenocroticotropic hormone) Stimulates GH FSH LH Prolactin ```
64
Dopamine ____ release of _____.
Inhibits | Prolactin
65
PRF (_______) _____ release of _____.
Prolactin releasing factor stimulates Prolactin
66
What are the hormones synthesized in nuclei of hypothalamus and descend to posterior pituitary gland?
ADH and Oxytocin
67
The other name for the pituitary gland is _____.
Hypophysis
68
The anterior pituitary is also known as ______.
adenohypohysis
69
What are the 3 regions of the anterior pituitary
1. Pars distalis 2. Pars tuberalis 3. Pars intermedia
70
Posterior pituitary is also known as ______.
Neurohypophysis
71
What is the pituitary's function (both anterior and posterior)
Regulates the activity of endocrine glands in the body | --> regulates growth, metabolism, reproduction, lactation, fluid balance, and response to stress
72
Anatomy of posterior pituitary gland: 3 regions
1. Median eminence 2. Infundibular stem or pituitary stem 3. Infundibular process (aka pars nervosa, neural lobe, posterior lobe)
73
Median eminence (location)
located at base of hypothalamus
74
Infundibular stem or pituitary stem
Neural connection between hypothalamus
75
What does the infundibular stem contain?
Neural axons that originate in hypothalamus
76
Infundibular process
Axons that originate in hypothalamus terminate in posterior lobe Site of hormone release!!
77
What is the female function of oxytocin?
Stimulates milk ejection and uterine contraction | synthetic versions induce labor
78
What is the male function of oxytocin?
May have a role in sperm motility
79
Target tissue of oxytocin
Mammary gland | Uterus
80
3 stimuli for oxytocin release
1. Distension of cervix at end of pregnancy 2. Breast stimulation 3. Positive emotional responses
81
Oxytocin utilizes ____ feedback system.
Positive
82
What can cause inhibition of oxytocin release
1. External stimulus stopping | 2. Negative emotional factors
83
3 Clinical applications of oxytocin
1. Induce labor --> Pitocin, Misoprostol 2. Diseases of excess oxytocin are UNCOMMON 3. Oxytocin deficiency will impair nursing - -> true or stress initiated?
84
Function of ADH
Control osmolality/osmolarity of plasma Increase blood volume
85
Target tissue of ADH
Collecting ducts in kidney (DCT and collecting duct) | --> increases water reabsorption by increasing permeability of collecting duct
86
Difference between osmolality and osmolarity
Osmolality - amount of solute (electrolytes) per kg of solvent (plasma) Osmolarity - amount of solute (electrolytes) per liter of solvent (plasma)
87
ADH promotes blood vessel ______.
Contraction (elevates BP)
88
5 stimuli for release of ADH
1. Increased plasma osmolarity 2. Decreased blood volume 3. Angiotensin II (indirectly) 4. Stress, trauma, exercise, heat 5. Various drugs (nicotine, morphine, etc)
89
ADH is also termed as ______ or ______.
``` Vasopressin Arginine Vasopressin (AVP) ```
90
Which of the stimuli for release of ADH is the most sensitive?
Plasma osmolarity 1% change in osmolality will stimulate release of ADH
91
What senses plasma changes?
Osmoreceptors in hypothalamus
92
What senses blood volume change and how effective are these receptors in stimulating ADH release.
Mechanoreceptors (baroreceptors) in atria, aortic arch and carotid sinus Not as effective as osmoreceptors in hypothalamus. 10% drop in blood pressure to stimulate release of ADH
93
How does angiotensin II stimulate ADH release?
Angiotensin II increases sensitivity of osmoreceptors in hypothalamus Also stimulates thirst centers in hypothalamus
94
3 ways to inhibit ADH release
1. Decreased plasma osmolality 2. Increased blood volume/pressure 3. Alcohol and caffeine
95
Clinical: too little or ineffective ADH is _____ _____.
Diabetes Insipidus
96
Two types of diabetes insipidus
Central DI | Nephrogenic DI
97
Central Diabetes Insipidus
Most common form of DI | Decreased release of ADH from posterior pituitary
98
Nephrogenic DI
Less common form of DI | Inability of kidneys to respond to ADH
99
Signs/Symptoms of DI
Polyuria (excessive urine) | Polydipsia (excessive thirst)
100
Medications for Diabetes Insipidous (central)
Desmopressin
101
Clinical: too much ADH is _____________.
Syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion | SIADH
102
What does excessive ADH release cause?
Water reabsorption in DCT/collecting duct --> hypervolemia
103
Hyponatremia
decreased sodium values in blood stream
104
Hypervolemia facilitates what 2 things?
1. Hyponatremia | 2. Natriuresis
105
Natriuresis
Excessive sodium excretion The expansion of extracellular fluid volume reduces sodium resorption in kidney --> Baroreceptors in atria/aorta release ANP which reduces sodium resorption --> Decreased aldosterone release which reduces sodium resorption in kidney
106
3 Etiologies of SIADH
1. Tumors (they secrete ADH themselves) 2. Head injuries or meningitis 3. Bronchiogenic tumors and diabetes mellitus
107
Pars distalis
Forms most of the anterior pituitary gland itself Anterior pituitary hormones synthesized and secreted
108
Pars tubularis
Thin layer of cells that wraps around anterior/lateral infundibular stem
109
Pars intermedia
Small layer of cells located between pars distalis and pars nervosa "disappears" in adult
110
3 Functions of Prolactin
1. Breast development during puberty and pregnancy 2. Stimulates milk production after birth (lactogenesis) 3. Inhibits ovulation
111
Prolactin target tissue
Mammary glands during puberty, pregnancy and while lactating newborn
112
5 stimuli of prolactin release
1. Puberty 2. Pregnancy 3. Lactation 4. Sleep 5. Dopamine antagonist
113
Inhibition of prolactin release (3)
1. Constant tonic release of dopamine 2. Dopamine agonists --> bromocriptine 3. Discontinuation of stimuli
114
When is growth hormone (GH) released and how is it released?
Released in pulsing/cyclic pattern | Peaks during adolescence
115
Functions of growth hormone
1. Stimulates all tissue growth and maturation | 2. Also plays role in aging, sleep, reproductive hormone function
116
Target tissue of growth hormone
1. Direct effect on tissues via GH receptors (liver, muscle, adipose) 2. Indirect effect on tissue via the IGF-1 pathway
117
Target tissue of IGF-1
Bone, cartilage, visceral organs
118
Actions of Growth Hormone
1. Liver 2. Adipose tissue 3. Muscle
119
Actions of IGF-1
Mediate cell growth in most tissues of the body. It also has inhibitory (antagonistic) effect on tissue growth

Pathophysiology (12 decks)

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