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Discuss the strange situation as a way of assessing type of attachment? A01 –ainsworth et al A01 procedure A01- findings evidence 3 types of attachment A01 Findings- types of attachment A03: Weakness - more than 3 attachment types- Supporting- reliability of observations Strengths –Easy to Perform/Observe – replicable study Weakness low internal validity Real life application-ss intervention strategies developed-help children with disordered patterns of attachment Ethical issues ss has been criticized on ethical grounds Weakness -ss lacks ecological validity. Research methods –observation= overt observation

Answer 1

The strange situation was devised by Ainsworths et al who wanted to test the nature of attachent in order to see how infants behave under conditions of mild stress and novelty they used a systematic test of attachment to one caregiver. The procedure consisted of eight episodes each with key features being that the caregiver and the stranger would alternatively stay with the infant or leave, this enables the observation of infants and their responses to firstly separation from their caregiver (separation anxiety), secondly the reunion with their caregiver (reunion behaviour) and their response to a stranger (stranger anxiety). The observers would record what the infant is doing every 15 seconds during the five behavioural categories and each item was scored for intensity on a scale of one to seven. The findings concluded that there was evidence for three types of attachent either: securely attached infants (type b) so caregivers are seen as a secure base to explore and the infants aren’t likely to cry if the caregiver leaves and some distress when left with the stranger and when they were feeling anxious they were easily soothed by caregivers, insecure avoidant infants (type a) where they’ll happily explore with or without their caregiver and they show little to no social interaction and intimacy with others, finally insecure resistant (type c) where infants seek yet resist social interaction with others showing high levels of separation anxiety and stranger anxiety and when they’re reunited with their caregivers they show conflicting behaviours and resist being picked up. They found that type of attachment was 65% for secure, 22% for insecure avoidant and 12% insecure resistant. A03: Although there is research to suggest there are more than three attachment types which may have been overlooked by Ainsworth that there could be a fourth type of attachement as proposed by Main and Solomon called insecure disorganised type d where infants don’t conform to any of ainsworths original attachent types as they show very strong attachent behaviour which is often followed by avoidant behaviour suggesting ainsworths original conclusions are incomplete and don’t account for all the attachment behaviours. However there is high reliability of the observations as observational studies like ainsworths as they found almost perfect iterobserver reliability of 94 suggesting there’s high agreement among the different observers when rating the exploratory behaviour and high inter observer reliability suggests observations had perfect reliability suggesting that the strange situation is a reliable method for examining attachent behaviour and determining attachent types. Due to the study’s high reliability it makes it easier to replicate and it’s easy to perform and observe and requires little equipment meaning the study can be replicated many times to check for consistency of the results as seen in other replications where researchers stood behind a one way mirror and observed a mother-child and stranger-child relations making it clear what type of attachent the child is showing. But the study does have low internal validity as the strange situation is simply a measure of the quality of one particular relationship rather than the childs attachement type as Main and Weston found that children who behaved differently in the strange situation depending on which parent they’re with so the strange situation may be measuring the infants relationship with a particular parent and not their personal characteristic so their attachment type suggesting the strange situation lacks internal validity as the observation is measuring the individual relationships. There is a real life application as the strange situation created intervention strategies to develop to help children with disordered patterns of attachent for example the circle of security project by Cooper et al teachers caregivers to understand infants signals of distress this project shows a decrease in the number of caregivers classified as disordered and a increase in the number of instances classified as securely attached so thé success of strategies like this emphasises the value of the research that leads to improvement in children’s lives. However the strange situation is criticised on ethical grounds because a child is put under stress from the separation and stranger anxiety so the study has broken ethical guideline protection of participants but some may argue that this was necessary in order to achieve the desired results but it does weaken the validity due to ethical guidelines being broken as they weren’t processed from harm and this could’ve caused the infants extreme distress and anxiety. Another criticism of the strange situation is that lack of ecological validity as ainsworth conducted the observation in a controlled environment and the children may have acted differently to how they would in a more familiar environment so we don’t know if the behaviours displayed by the children for example high separation anxiety would be the same when the children are in a familiar environment making the method of assessment less valid. The research method used was observation which was overt as the mother’s knew they were being watched resulting in demand characteristics where the mother’s may have changed their behaviour to appear like excellent parents which could’ve affected the child’s behaviour therefore affecting the results of the experiment as the researchers wouldn’t be observing a valid representation of the child’s behaviour making the strange situation a less valid measure of attachment.

Answer 2

Van ijzendoorn and kroonenberg were the first psychologists to look at cultural variations in attachent by conducting a meta analysis their procedure involved looking at 32 studies of attachment behaviour involving over 2000 strange situation classifications in 8 different countries. Their findings concluded of few differences that were small with secure attachement being the most common classification in every country, with insecure avoidant attachment being the next common exception Israel and Japan where insecure resistant attachement was the next most common. Variation within the culture was 1.5 times greater than the variation between cultures, leading to a conclusion that the global pattern across the cultures appears to be similar to the results found in the US ie secure attachement is the norm. So the presence of these cultural similarities supports the idea that secure attachement is the best for healthy social and emotional attachement. There have been cultural similarities as Tronick et al studies an African tribe efe who live in extended family groups despite the differences in child rearing practices infants at six months still show one primary attachment. However cultural differences found by grossman and grossman found higher levels of insecure attachement amongst German infants than in other cultures as German culture involves keeping some interpersonal distance between the parents and children meaning that infants don’t engage in proximity seeking behaviours in the strange situation and so they appear to be insecurely attached. Takahashi found similar rates of secure attachment in Japanese infants to those found by ainsworth and el as Japanese infants showed no evidence of insecure avoidant attachement and high rates of insecure resistant attachement so japon infants rarely experience separation from their mothers which explains why infants are distressed in the strange situation than the USA counterparts. A03: However the overall findings are misleading as a disproportionately high number of studies reviewed were conducted in the US (18/32), so overall the findings would’ve been distorted by these meaning the apparent consistency between the cultures might not genuinely reflect how much attachement types vary between cultures. A strength of the meta analysis is the large samples used as there was a total of nearly 2000 babies and primary attachment figures not like simonelli et als study that had large comparison groups from previous research but their own samples were smaller so due to the large samples used in van ijzendoorn and kroonenberg it increases the internal validity by reducing the impact of a biased methodology or very unusual participants. But an alternative explanation for similarities found between cultures could be that Bowlbys explanation for cultural similarities was that attachment is innate and universal and so produced the same kind of behaviour all over the world but Van ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg proposed the idea of an alternative possibility suggesting tu at cross cultural differences may reflect the effects of mass media as many books and TV programmes are broadcast around the world and create parenting norms so the similarities in child rearing have become more common so the similarities may be due to global culture. However an issue with the research is that it only focuses on countries rather than cultures as Van ijzendoorn and kroonenberg were studying differences in countries rather than cultures for example a Japanese study found a similar distribution of attachement types of western studies in Tokyo but an increase in insecure resistant individuals in a rural sample done by Van ijzendoorn and sagi so the results demonstrate a country and a culture aren’t the same thing and provide support for the claim that there’s more variation within than between cultures. There are also issue with the research methods used as imposed etic is a problem because they’re putting American theories of attachement onto other cultures causing an unfair generalisation of cultures that aren’t fairly being represented in a professional or accurate manner. Other examples of attachment studies is the strange situation method as it’s biased towards US/UK culture due to it being designed by an American researcher based on a British theory so the theory and assessment may not be applicable to other cultures and trying to apply a theory or technique designed for one culture to another aka imposed etic disregards the notion of culturel emic so cultural uniqueness this is the idea that the lack of pleasure on a reunion indicates that insecure attachement is imposed etic for instance in Germany the behaviour might be seen more as independence than avoidance and not a sign of insecurity. Also the tools used for cross cultural research may not be appropriate as the tools used for assessment may not be valid in that culture and the strange situation has assumptions that are specific to it’s country of origin being the US as it assumes that the willingness to explore is a sign of secure attachment and in Japan dependence rather than independence is a sign of secure attachement meaning that the research using the strange situation may lack validity in cultures others than the US. The attachment theory in itself is culturally biased so ethnocentric as Rothbaum et al argue that it’s not just the methods used in the research that are culturally biased but also the underlying theory because Bowlby believed that securely attached infants become socially and emotionally competent children and adults in the west it’s defined in terms of independence and self oriented behaviour but in Japan competence is represented by preference for a group rather than self oriented behaviour and inhibition of emotional expression so there was high levels of insecure resistant attachment in Japanese children who simply represent a different form of competence.

Answer 3

Bowlby proposed that prolonged emotional deprivation would’ve long term consequences in terms of emotional development, deprivation in itself means the loss of emotional care that’s normally provided by a primary caregiver and the value of maternal care that children need for a warm intimate/continuous relationship with the mother figure to ensure the continuing of normal mental health. A critical period is also very important for the development of attachment because of a child has frequent and/or prolonged separations they may become emotionally disturbed but only if before the age of about 2 and a half years old and if there is no substitute mother person available. Bowlby also suggested that a long term consequence of deprivation was emotional maladjustment or even mental problems like depression. The 44 juvenile thieves was Bowlbys experiment where the procedure involved Bowlby analysing case histories of 88 emotionally maladjusted children attempting a child guidance clinic where a half of them had been caught stealing hence the 44 thieves and the other half were a control group. Bowlby suggest that 14 of thieves were affectionless psychopaths so people who lacked normal signs of affection, shame or a sense of responsibility. The findings consisted of 14 individuals diagnosed as affectionless thieves and 12 had experienced frequent early separations from their mothers and almost none of the control participants experienced early separation whereas 39% of the thieves had experienced early separations suggesting that early separations are linked to affection less psychopathy. A03: However a weakness of this theory is that emotional separation could be more important than just physical separation as infants still experience deprivation even when they’re not physically separated from caregivers for instance mothers who are severely depressed may find it difficult to provide appropriate levels of emotional care. Radke yarrow et al found that 55% of children with severely depressed mothers were more insecurely attached compare dot 29% of children with non depressed mother suggesting that psychological separation can also lead to deprivation in the same way as physical separation. However there is research supporting the long term effects of deprivation suggesting that early maternal deprivation increases the likelihood that individuals will experience later negative outcomes as conducted by Bifulco et al who found that 25% of women who experienced separation from their mothers lager developed depression/ anxiety disorder compared to 15% with no experience of separation so the severity of these problems was greater in women whose loss was before the age of 6 showing that early deprivation can make people more vulnerable to later mental health problems. The data however is very strong as there have been extensive interviews with the children and families with a total 25 pages of details of the participants history which gives a lot of insight and also with Bowlbys insight being an experienced psychiatrist who had previously worked a lot with troubled children helped benefit them. But there have been psychologists that have criticised bowlbys theory as there is a differences between deprivation and privation as Rutter claimed that bowlby didn’t make it clear whether the child’s attachment bond had formed by been broken or had never been formed in the first place. Rutter believed that the lack of attachment bond would’ve had far more serious consequences for the child than the loss of an attachment bond which is important because there’s a key distinction between deprivation and privation and the lack of clarity that may affect the validity of the research findings. A real world application has been found from the results of Bowlbys work as it has had a positive impact on the way children are looked after in hospitals because prior to bowlbys research children were separated from their parents when they went into hospitals as seen in bowlbys and Robertson’s research where they filmed the distress of young cauldron in hospitals which led to major changes as now parents are encourage to visit their children and there is greater flexibility in tens of visiting hours which just demonstrates the positive applications of bowlbys work to improve the lives of children based on his theory of maternal deprivation. There are also practical applications as MDH and other accompanying research has significant real world applications as to highlight the importance of positive attachement experiences and maintaining the monotropic bond in the first five years and now some national governments offer more financial support for young families in terms of maternity and paternity leave for instance Sweden offers 480 days for parental leave clearly highlighting its commitment to support a children’s early attachement experiences. Although there are issues with Bowlbys conclusions with being correlational as bowlby found there was a relationship between early separation and delinquency/affection-less psychopathy but we can’t definitely conclude that separation was the cause so there may have been a third unidentified variable that accounted for the delinquency/affection-less psychopathy for example the immediate cause of separation like neglect/abuse might’ve been the direct cause of the problems experienced at adolescence than the separation itself. The research methods used may also weaken the study as investigator effects could’ve affected the results as bowlby designed and conducted self reports himself and the result of this and his presence and interpretation might’ve influenced the outcome of the research so bowlbys diagnosis of affectionless psychopathy might’ve been distorted by researcher confirmation bias.

Answer 4

Research into the effects of institutionalisation have been conducted by several researchers one common study was by Rutter and sonuga barke who studied 165 Romanian orphans who spent their early lives in Romanian institutions where 111 were adopted before the age of 2 and 54 by the age of 4. ERA (English Romanian adoptees) study procedure involved adoptees who were tested at regular intervals to assess their physical, cognitive and social development and compared this to a control group of 52 British children who were adopted in the UK before the age of 6 months. Their findings concluded that the Romanian orphans lagged behind the UK adoptees on all measures of development and by the age of 4 some children had caught up with their UK counterparts particularly those adopted before the age of 6 months. The follow ups had signifiant deficits like disinhibited attachment and problems with peer relationships that remained in individuals beyond the age of 6 months and the ERA findings of quasi autistic symptoms in Romanian orphans with impaired language and social skills so with things like disinhibited attachment, attention seeking, cling lines and lower frequency of pretend play and reduced empathy. Other studies of Romanian orphans like Le mare and Audet carried out longitudinal studies of 36 Romanian orphans adopted to families in Canada where they were physically smaller than the matched controlled group at the age of 4 and half years but this difference disappeared at 10 and a half years. Another study like Zeanah et al compared 136 Romanian children aged 12-31 months old and spent 90% of their lives in an institution and they found that institutionalised children showed signs of disinhibited attachment. Bowlby identified that the likely effects would include affectionless psychopathy, delinquency and a low IQ and the effects identified in privation studies for example Harlows findings of delinquency, affection less behaviour. The effects of institutionalisation include physical underdevelopment ( deprivation dwarfism)intellectual under functioning, disinhibited attachment, poor parenting. Hodges and tizard also conducted a longitudinal natural experiment with 65 children who were placed in a institutional care before the age of 4 months where there was no attachment policy after 4 years 24 were and adopted, 15 returned home and 26 were still in the institution. The assessments ages were 8 and 16 years and the data obtained were interviews with adolescent and mothers and sometimes fathers and there was also a self report questionnaire on the social difficulties completed by the adolescents and teachers who also completed a postal questionnaire focusing on the adolescents relationships with the teachers and peers. The findings consisted of maternal deprivation was overcome to a large extent by the adopted children with them developing strong and lasting attachments to their parents once they were placed in families compared to the restored and institutionalised groups that made limited recoveries also all 3 groups were more oriented towards adult attention and they had more difficulties with their peers and had fewer close relationships than the matched control group of adolescents suggesting that early institutional experience has damaging long term effects. A03: However a problem with these studies is the individual differences in the effect of institutionalisation as no children who experience institutionalisation fail to recover as some research suggests that individuals who don’t form an attachment within a sensitive period are unable to recover and this isn’t true of all children who experience institutionalisation, Rutter even suggests that some children in institutions might receive special attention and have some type of attachment experience suggesting that institutionalisation doesn’t affect all children in the same way. By conducting longitudinal studies in institutionalisation research like the one by Rutter and sonuga barke who followed the lives of children over many years allow researchers to assess the long term effects of institutionalisation and whether these effects may disappear after a sufficient time with suitable high quality care so these studies demonstrated it’s wrong to conclude that institutionalisation inevitably causes negative effects. There is however high internal validity as there are fewer extraneous variables than any other orphan studies as they were many studies before the Romanian orphan studies where the children who were studied had often suffered trauma before hand meaning that there were more confounding participant variables meaning it’s difficult to observe the effects of institutionalisation and in the Romanian orphan studies the children didn’t have these variables so it had a higher internal validity. Although emotional deprivation is only one factor so the research with Romanian orphans had inevitably confounding variables where orphans were faced with more than just emotional deprivation as they were appalling physical conditions that affected their health and the lack of cognitive stimulation would’ve affected development so the orphans experienced poor subsequent care like living in poverty suggesting that researchers should be cautious when interpreting the effects of these studies as many factors could’ve affected orphans development. A real life application can be taken from these findings as the insights from the research into institutionalisation that has been used to improve the lives of children this process of adoption has changed so mothers who give the baby up for adoption do so within the first week of birth who enables children to form secure attachment with their adoptive families during this sensitive period as a result adoptive mothers and children are just as securely attached as in non adoptive families. Supporting research is by chugani et al who used PET scans with a sample of 10 children who were adopted from Romanian orphanages and compared them with 17 normal adults and a group of 7 children the assessments showed mild cognitive neurocognitive impairment, impulsivity, attention and social deficits. The Romanian orphans showed significantly decreased activities in the orbital frontal gurus, parts of the prefrontal cortex/hippocampus, amygdala and the brain stem. Chugani concluded that dysfunction in the brain regions may’ve resulted from stress of early deprivation and might be linked to a long term cognitive and behavioural deficits so this neurological evidence supports the damaging effects privation can have on specific brain structures. However there are of problems with generalising from Romanian studies at the standards of care were particularly poor as Romanian orphanages werent typical of other types of institutionalised care as children were raised in extreme conditions given poor care and very low levels of intellectual stimulation and the conditions were so bad we must ask whether the results can be applied to other effects caused by any sort of institutionalisation. The research methods used were adoption versus control groups that weren’t randomly assigned in the ERA studies so more sociable children may have been selected further distorting the results which could’ve altered the findings and the overall conclusions made from the studies.

Answer 5

The internal working model is where infants learn what relationships are and how partners in a relationship behave towards each other from experience so they’re used to predict the behaviour of other people in the future. The model effects childhood friendships, parenting and mental health as seen in the Minnesota child parent study that found continuity between early secure attachment and later emotional and social competence, Mullis et al also reported late childhood attachments made to peers reflect those made to parents in infancy and bible found the late childhood behaviour are learned in childhood to social situations and peer groups supporting the idea of continuity from early attachments and the internal working model. Hazan and shaver also conducted research into the influence of early attachment on childhood and adult relationships their procedure involved placing a love quiz in a newspaper that asked questions about their current attachment experiences and about their attachment history to identify their current and childhood attachment types. The quiz asked questions about the attitudes towards love as an assessment of the internal working model and they analysed 620 responses 205 from men and 415 from women from a cross section of the population. They found the prevalence of attachment styles was similar to infancy as 56% were classified as securely attached, 25% were classed as insecurely avoidant and 19% were classed as insecurely resistant. Securely attached adults described love experiences as happy, friendly and trusting and relationships as more enduring than described by the adults who were insecurely attached so they tended to have a positive internal working model of relationships. Other research has been conducted for instance youngblade and belsky found 3-5 year securely attached children were more curious, competent, empathetic, resilient and self confident and got along better with the other children and were more likely to form close friendships. Westermarck reported that children who form close friendships in the first 6 years don’t generally go on to form adult sexual relationships with each other suggesting that early attachments do affect childhood and adult relationships. A03: A weakness of the research linking early attachment to later relationships is that it’s correlational so it can’t show causal effect as the attachment style and later love styles might be caused by a third variable like innate temperament so an infants temperament affects the way a parent responds and so it’s a determining factor in attachment style and temperament explains issues with relationships later on in life meaning that researchers can’t claim the internal working model determines later relationships without considering other intervening variables. McCarthy assessed the quality of adult relationships of 40 women aged 44 Supporting- McCarthy assessed quality of adult relationships of 40 women aged to 44yrs with childhood insecure attachments. Women with insecure-avoidant attachments had less successful adult romantic relationships, while those with insecure-resistant attachments had problems forming non-romantic adult friendships, supports idea of iwm. Kirkpatrick and David studied 300 dating couple for 3 years and found those identified as having a secure childhood attachments were more likely to have a stable and satisfying relationships supporting the idea of continuity from the internal working model. However a weakness is a study by Zimmerman who assessed infant attachment type and adolescent attachement to parents and these findings indicate very little relationship between the quality of an infant and adolescent attachment this is a problem because the outcome isn’t what would be expected if the internal working model is important in development. Contradictory research suggests that the internal working model isn’t fully supported for example Steele et al found that only a small correlation of 0.17 between having a secure attachment type in childhood and early adulthood. The theory of attachment may also be deterministic as hazan and shavers research suggests that early experiences have a fixed effect on later adult relationships as an infant who is insecurely attached is doomed to experience negative relationships. Simpson et al found that individuals who experience happy adult relationships despite being insecurely attached as infants suggesting that an individuals past doesn’t unalterably determine their future course of relationships. There are also alternative explanations for adult attachment type as Feeney argued that rather than early relationships causing a later alternative attachment type where individuals seek out others who confirm their expectations of relationships and by being in a secure adult relationship causes adult attachment type rather than the other way around meaning this may be a better explanation for the findings of early attachment research. However the research methods mean the studies lack validity as they’re relying on a retrospective classification for example Hazan and shavers rely on adults answering questions about their early lives in order to assess early attachment style and these recollections may be flawed because memories aren’t always accurate and longitudinal studies tend to support Hazan and shavers findings on early attachment style that predicts relationships in adult life.

Answer 6

One definition of abnormality is statistical infrequency which describes abnormal behaviours as those that are extremely rare in a population for example the House of Commons had a briefing paper in 2018 which reported that 1 in 6 people in the UK had experienced a mental disorder like depression/anxiety in the previous week so statistically normal behaviours are defined as those found in the majority of the population and if 1 in 6 people experienced a mental disorder in a week before taking a survey the majority (5 in 6) have been mentally healthy un that period. Another definition of abnormality is deviation from social norms which states that anyone who deviates from socially created norms so things that are considered abnormal for instance some social norms like not laughing at a funeral are implicit mah indicate that an underlying abnormality if it’s broken. Other social norms like causing disorder in public are policed by laws which are explicit norms of behaviour for example implicit social norm like politeness so impolite people are behaving in a socially deviant way because others find it difficult to interact with them and some abnormal behaviour like paedophilia which deviates from implicit social rule and against law. Failure to function adequately means a person isn’t coping with their day to day life so their behaviour is causing distress to an individual and or others for example people with phobias may find anxiety very distressing but people with schizophrenia generally lack awareness that anything is wrong but their behaviour like hallucinations for instance believing they’re being persecuted may be distressing to others. The world health organisation disability assessment schedule is used to measure functioning in areas like self care getting along with people’s life activities and participation in society. A final definition is deviation from ideal mental health which proposes that certain criteria is needed for positive mental health and an absence of any of these indicates abnormality. Jahoda has identified 6 criteria for ideal mental health, these include positive self attitudes, self actualisation, resistance to stress, autonomy, accurate perception of reality and mastery of the environment and these 6 characteristics enable someone to feel happy and behave competently and if one or more of these criteria is absent then a person may be experiencing a mental disorder. A03: However some statistically infrequent behaviours are desirable and not all abnormal behaviours are considered undesirable for example very few people have an IQ over 150 but for those who do this abnormality is considered desirable although equally there are some undesirable behaviours like depression that are relatively uncommon using statistical infrequency to define abnormality means being unable to distinguish between desirable and undesirable. There are practical applications with the failure to function adequately definition which recognises an individuals subjective experience which is a benefit of the definition is that we view the disorder from the point of view of the person experiencing it and we can use the world health organisation disability assessment schedule criteria to measure the ability of an individual to function adequately for example dressing themselves, preparing meals and so we measure abnormality objectively and this definition has sensitivity considering subjective experience and practicality using objective measure. A positive of the ideal mental health definition is it has a positive approach as this definition offers an alternative perspective on mental disorder which focuses on the positives rather than the negatives and although jahodas ideas have never really been taken up by mental health professionals ideas have had some influence and in accord with the positive psychology movement therefore a strength of this approach lies in its positive outlook and it’s influence on humanistic approaches. However if abnormality is defined in statistical infrequency we need to decide where to separate normality from abnormality for example one of the symptoms of depression is difficulty sleeping as some people think that abnormal sleep is less than six hours a night on average but others think that the cut off should be five hours so it’s difficult to define abnormality in statistical infrequency which is a limitation of the definition. Another downfall of the ideal mental health definition is the unrealistic criteria so according to the ideal mental health criteria most of us are abnormal as the criteria is quite difficult to measure for example assessing individuals capacity for personal growth or environmental mastery meaning the approach may be an interesting concept but is not really useable when it comes to identifying abnormality. A weakness of the deviation from social norms is the cultural change over time so social norms vary over time and are open to abuse as in the past homosexuality was considered a mental disorder in the DSM but today is acceptable in most countries and 50 years ago in Russia anyone who disagreed with the state ran the risk of being regarded as insane and placed in a mental institution so if we define abnormality in terms of deviation from social norms there’s a real danger of creating definitions based on prevailing social morals and attitudes. Another weakness is that deviance is related to context and degree so judgements on deviance is often related to the context of behaviour for example wearing next to nothing on beach is regarded as normal whereas the same outfit in a classroom or a formal gathering is regarded as abnormal and possibly an indication of a mental disorder meaning that social deviance on it’s own can’t offer a complete definition of abnormality because it’s inevitable related to both context and degree. The research methods involved weaken the definition as there are cultural relativisms so cultures differ in statistical infrequency and deviation from social norms of behaviour so classification systems like the DSM is mainly based on white middle class western cultures yet is applied to other subcultures however the DSM-V 13 acknowledges the cultural differences in symptoms for panic attacks like uncontrollable crying/difficulty breathing which may be primary symptoms in different cultures although it’s difficult to establish universal rules for labelling behaviour as abnormal it’s possible to include culture relativism in diagnostic systems.

Answer 7

The global assessment of functioning scale aka GAF is a method of measuring how well individuals function in everyday life and it considers Rosenhan and Seligmans sections plus occupational functioning. Rosenhan and Seligman suggested some key characteristics of ‘failing to function adequately’ like personal distress as most people who seek psychiatric help are suffering from a sense of psychological distress/discomfort and observer distress where someone’s behaviour causes discomfort and distress to others observing their behaviour and maladaptive behaviour where’s someone’s behaviour interferes with the ability to lead a normal life for example agoraphobia and unpredictable behaviour so if behaviour is unpredictable if it doesn’t fit the situation or if it’s unexpected and uncontrolled for example sobbing for no reason or laughing at bad news and finally irrational behaviour so if a persons behaviour doesn’t make sense to other people so it’s difficult to understand. Failure to function adequately means that a person isn’t coping with their day to day life and their behaviour causes distress to individuals and/or others for example people with phobias may find anxiety very distressing but people with schizophrenia generally lack awareness that anything is wrong but the behaviour such as hallucinations like believing they’re being persecuted may be distressing to others this is why the WHODAS the (world health organisation disability assessment schedule) is used to measure the functioning in areas like self care so getting along with people and life activities and participation in society. A second definition is deviation from ideal mental health with proposes that certain criteria is needed for positive mental health and the absence of any of these indicates abnormality which is why Jahoda identified six criteria for ideal mental health which include; positive self attitudes, self actualisation, resistance to stress, autonomy, accurate perception of reality and mastery of the environment so these six characteristics enable someone to feel happy and behave competently and if one of more of these criteria is absent then a person may be experiencing a mental disorder. A03: One of the weaknesses of the failure to function adequately definition is that behaviour may be functional as some apparently dysfunctional behaviour can be beneficial for an individual for example some mental disorders like eating disorders/depression may lead to extra attention for an individual such attention is rewarding and thus quite functional rather than dysfunctional therefore there is a failure to distinguish between functional and dysfunctional behaviours meaning the definition is incomplete. Although there are practical applications to the failure to function adequately definition as it recognises the individuals subjective experience which is beneficial as we view the disorder from the point of view of the person experiencing it and we can use the WHODAS criteria to measure the ability of the individual being able to function adequacy for example dressing themselves, preparing meals and so we can measure their abnormality objectively therefore tuis definition has sensitivity considering the subjective experience and practicality using this objective measure. A positive of the ideal mental health is that the definition offers an alternative perspective on a mental disorder and focuses on the positives rather than the negatives as Jahodas ideas have never really been taken up by mental health professionals but the ideas have had some influence and in accord with the positive psychology movement so the strength lies in the positive outlook and influence on humanistic approaches. But a weakness of the failure to function adequately is the issue of individual differences for example one person hearing voices may be unable to function adequately whereas another person mah suffer from the same symptoms but function perfectly well despite having the same psychological and behavioural symptoms so each person is diagnosed differently according to the definition meaning it has questionable validity. A problem with the idea mental health definition is that it has unrealistic criteria according to the criteria most people would be considered abnormal as it’s such a high set of standards that are somewhat impossible to achieve. Jahoda presented them as ideal criteria but how many are needed to be lacking before a person is judged as abnormal and the criteria is also difficult to measure for example assessing an individuals capacity for personal growth or mastery fo the environment meaning the approach may be an interesting concept but not really useable when it comes to identifying abnormality. Although a strength of Jahodas definition is that it takes a positive and holistic view because the definition focuses on the positive and desirable behaviours rather than considering just the negative and undesirable behaviour so the definition considers the whole person taking into account a multitude of factors that can affect health and well being. Overall a strength of the deviation from ideal mental health definition of abnormality is it’s comprehensive covering a broad range of criteria. Although a weakness of failure to function adequately is that everyday life varies the ability to cope with everyday life depends on what’s seen as normal everyday life which varies within and across cultures so somebody’s clocks mean that individuals don’t rise until midday but can function well at other times. Culturally it’s not unusual to have siestas or move home regularly which may been seen as abnormal meaning that definition isn’t clear. Overall a limitation of the definitions is there are different cultural ideas of how life should be lived for example adequate functioning depends on cultural norms and people from non dominant subcultures may have different lifestyles. Jahodas criteria of self actualisation may not apply to collectivist cultures which could explain why people from non middle class or minority ethnic groups are more often diagnosed with mental disorders.

Answer 8

Phobias are a type of anxiety disorder and are characterised by a marked and persistent fear that’s excessive/unreasonable and are cued by a presence or anticipation of a specific object or situation for example flying, heights or seeing blood. Symptoms of phobias can be placed into one of three categories; behavioural so how does a person behave when they see their feared object so the phobic stimulus is either avoided/responded to with great anxiety for example someone with a phobia of dogs may cross the road every time they see a dog which is receiving negative reinforcement which will maintain the phobia. Avoidance could interfere with the individuals normal daily routine. Emotional so how does a person feel when they see a feared object so exposure to the phobic stimulus nearly always produces a rapid anxiety response. Finally cognitive so what does a person think about the feared object so the person would recognise the fear is excessive/unreasonable, therefore a person is consciously aware their anxiety levels they experience in relation to the feared object/situation is overstated. Mowrer proposed the two process model to explain phobias using the behavioural approach which explains the development and maintenance of a phobia using theories of classical conditioning and operant conditioning. It’s the first single explanation for a phobia by mowrer in the two process model of phobia. According to behaviourists, phobias are the result of classically conditioned association between anxiety provoking an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and a previously neutral stimulus for example a child with no previous fear of dogs gets bitten by a dog and from this moment onwards they associate the dog with fear and pain due to the process of generalisation the child isn’t just afraid of the dog who hit them they now fear all dogs. Classical conditioning explains how a phobia is acquired and initially the neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) which produces the unconditioned response (UCR) of fear. The ns becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS) and produces fear as the conditioned response (CR) whenever the cs is presented. Watson and Rayner paired initially the ns being a white rat with an ucs being a loud noise which then produced a ucr of fear in this instance a baby called little Albert. After making this pairing four times little Albert produced a conditioned fear response when presented with a rat which just demonstrates a fear response to initially a neutral stimulus that could be classically conditioned. Operant conditioning explains how phobias are maintained and if the fear is lowered by avoiding the phobic stimulus then the avoidance behaviour becomes a negative reinforcer, for example if someone was afraid of spiders because they had been previously frightened by one then the reduction in fear they experienced by avoiding the spiders would lead them to continue avoiding them. The conditioned stimulus evokes fear and avoidance of the feared object or situation which lessens this feeling so it’s rewarding, but the reward is negative reinforcement which strengthens the avoidance behaviour and the phobia is maintained. A03: Although biologically the two process model is limited as the phobia doesn’t always develop after a traumatic incident for example Nardo et al found that not everyone who is bitten by a dog develops a phobia of dogs and the diathesis stress model proposed that we inherit the genetic vulnerability for developing mental disorders but a disorder is then triggered by a life event so the fear is easier to condition to in some things like spiders than others like toasters which seligman argues that we’re genetically prepared to learn associations between fear and stimuli like snakes that were life threatening in our evolutionary past. However the two process model is supported by research by sue et al who found that some people can recall the specific event the at led to the phobia developing for example agoraphobics were most likely to explain their phobia in terms of a specific event showing that classical conditioning can be involved in developing phobias. There’s also supporting research for the social learning explanation of the development of phobias for example an experiment by bandura and rosenthal where a model acted as if they were in pain every time a buzzer sounded later on those participants who had observed this showed an emotional reaction to a buzzer demonstrating an acquired fear of response showing that imitating the behaviour modelled by others can lead to an acquisition of phobias. But the idea of biological preparedness is further supported by Ost and Hugdahl who claim that nearly half of all people with phobias have never had an anxious experience with their object of fear and some have had no experience at all for example some snake phobics have never encountered a snake yet still fear them. The two process model also ignores cognitive factors making it reductionist and the cognitive aspects to phobias can’t be explained in traditionally behaviourist framework for example a person thinks they might die if they’re trapped in a lift and then might become extremely anxious which may trigger a phobia about lifts showing that irrational thinking also involved on the development of phobias which explains why cognitive therapies can be more successful in treating phobias than behavioural treatments. A real life application can be taken from the behaviourist explanation with therapy as these behaviourist ideas have been used to develop effective treatments including systematic desensitisation and flooding. SD helped people to unlearn their fears using the principles of classical conditioning whilst flooding prevents people from avoiding their phobias and stops negative reinforcement from taking place. Consequently these therapies have been successfully used to treat people with phobias providing further support to the behaviourist explanation. There is also empirical support showing how classical conditioning leads to the development of phobias like in Watson and Rayners study which used classical conditioning to create a phobia in little Albert who developed a phobia of white rats when he learned to associate a rat with loud noise which scared him leading him to associate all rats with being scared. However there is the issue of nature versus nurture as for the nature side which is inherited factors so biological preparedness meaning that a person can be born already in fear of certain objects in order for survival compared to nurture so being conditioned to fear an object or situation like with the two process model where a person learns to associate a neutral object with fear due to an event occurring which activated this fear.

Answer 9

There are two behaviourist therapies used to treat phobias which are systematic desensitisation (SD) and flooding. Both therapies use the principles of classical conditioning to replace a persons phobia with a new response being relaxation. SD used counterconditioning to replace fear with relaxation whereby patients learn relaxation techniques like slow breathing/progressive muscle relaxation. At the start the patient and therapist work out an hierarchy of phobias situations from least to most feared so the patient imagines the least feared scene whilst simultaneously relaxing. When no anxiety is experienced the fear has been desensitised. The therapist and patient work through the hierarchy in a systematic way until the patient experiences no anxiety when imaging the most feared scene. In vivo SD phobic is gradually exposed to the phobic stimulus rather than imaging it or using pictures and is based on reciprocal inhibition being relaxed inhibits anxiety. Flooding can take one of two forms: in Vivo so actual exposure or in vitro so imaginary exposure. So the patient is either exposed to an actual phobic stimulus or to a virtual reality version of it in one long session until the anxiety has disappeared. Although the intense fear is initially experienced the fear response is eventually extinguished as the adrenaline levels naturally decrease so the new stimulus response link can be learned and the feared stimulus is now associated with a non anxious response. A03: However the relaxation may be a success of both SD and flooding which is more to do with exposure to a feared situation than relaxation for example klein et al compared SD with supportive psychotherapy for patients with either social or specific phobias and found no difference in the effectiveness suggesting the active ingredient in SD/flooding may simply be the generation of hopeful expectancies that the phobia can be overcome suggesting that cognitive factors are more important than the behavioural approach generally acknowledges. But the effectiveness of SD is highly successful as research has found that SD is successful for a range of phobias for example McGrath et am reported that about 75% of patients with phobias responded to SD but in vivo techniques are more successful than in vitro as found by Chou et al. There is often a number of different exposure techniques that are involved in vivo and also modelling where the patient watches someone else whose coping well with the fears stimulus as found by comer which demonstrates the effectiveness of SD but also the value of using a range of different exposure techniques. Flooding is also highly effective as it can be as effective for those who stick with it for example Craske et al concluded that flooding and SD are equally effective in treating phobias but it can be highly traumatic and patients may quit during treatment which shows that flooding can be useful for particular individuals as long as they’re aware beforehand of distress they’re likely to experience so they can complete treatments. But there are practical issues with SD as it’s a slow process taking on average 6-8 seasons as research suggests that the longer the technique takes the more effective it is. Additional research supporting SD is by Gilroy et al who examined 42 patients with arachnophobia which is a fear of spiders where each patient is treated using three 45 minute SD sessions and when they examined the patients three months and 33 months later and the SD group were less fearful than the control group ( who were only taught relaxation techniques) providing further support for SD as a long term treatment for phobias. Behavioural therapies are also very beneficial for treating phobias as they’re generally faster, cheaper and require less effort on the patients part than other psychotherapies for example CBT requires the willingness for patients to think deeply about their mental problems which isn’t the case for behavioural therapies and self administered SD can be as effective as therapist guided SD making it cheaper and more accessible meaning that behavioural therapies are useful for children and people with learning difficulties. But there are ethical issues with SD as it creates high levels of anxiety when patients are initially exposed which raises ethical issues and so questions appropriateness but it should be noted that virtual reality therapy does help resolve these issues. There are also ethical issues with flooding as it’s highly traumatic and is rarely used and if not carefully administered it can be dangerous. It’s also not an appropriate treatment for every phobia and should be used with caution as some people actually have an increased fear after therapy and it’s not possible to predict when this will occur. Wolpe reported a case of a client whose anxiety levels intensified to such a degree that the flooding therapy resulted in her being hospitalised so some people may not be able to tolerate high levels of anxiety induced therapy and the risk of exciting therapy before calm and relaxed which is a problem as existing treatment before completion is likely to strengthen rather than weaken the phobia.

Answer 10

Becks negative triad model could be described as how childhood experiences like continual parental criticism or rejection by others lead to negative cognitive schemas developing which are activated in situations similar to those present when these schemas were learned. Systematic negative schemas and cognitive biases like generation lead to depression, negative schemas maintain a negative triad of beliefs, these concern the self for example I’m unattractive and boring or the world like saying no one wants my company and finally the future for example I’ll always be on my own. Ellis took a different approach from beck to explaining depression and started by explaining what’s required for good mental health and according to Ellis good mental health is the result of rational thinking which allows people to be happy and pain free, whereas depression is the result of irrational thinking which prevents us from being happy and pain free. Ellis abc model proposes that when an activating event (A) leads to an irrational belief (B) and consequences of this (C) may be depression for example being fired at work (A) might lead to an irrational belief (B) that the company had it in for you which could lead to the consequence (C) of depression. Musturbatory thinking is the source of irrational beliefs such as ‘’ I must be approved of by important people’’ or ‘’ I must do well or I am worthless’’ and ‘’ the world must give me happiness’’ and people who hold these beliefs may become depressed. However an individual who holds such expectations is bound to be disappointed and is at risk of becoming depressed and an individual who fails an exam becomes depressed not because they’ve failed an exam but because they hold an irrational belief regarding that failure for example ‘I must do well so failing the exam means I’m stupid’. So in order to treat depression which arises out of negative thinking such irrational thoughts need to be challenged and turned into more positive beliefs. A03: Although the cognitive approach can sometimes blame the client rather than the situational factors as the approach suggests it’s the client who is responsible for their disorder which gives the client the power to change the way things are and this stance may lead to the client or therapist to overlook situational factors life events or family problems which may have contributed to a mental disorder therefore a strength of the cognitive approach lies in its focus on the clients life may also need to be considered. But a strength of this approach is the role of irrational thinking as it’s view of depression is linked to irrational thinking which is supported by Hammen and Krantz who found that depressed participants made more errors in logic when asked to interpret written material than the non depressed participants. Bates et al also found that depressed participants who had given negative automatic thought statements became more depressed and research supports the view that negative thinking leads to depression and that negative thinking may also be the consequence of depression. There is also research evidence that supports the cognitive explanation of depression as Boury et al found that patients with depression are more likely to misinterpret information negatively (cognitive bias) and feel hopeless about their future (negative triad) which supports the different components of becks theory and idea cognitions involved in depression. There are also alternative explanations as depression may also be explained biologically in terms of genetic factors and neurotransmitters as studies have found low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin in depressed people and the gene related to low levels of serotonin is 10 times more common in depressed people. Research shows that drug therapies which raise serotonin levels are successful in the treatment of depression meaning that neurotransmitters also play a role in causing depression and so the diathesis stress model could be a better approach to take. There is other supporting evidence by Grazioli and terry who assessed 65 women of cognitive vulnerability and found that women they deemed to be more vulnerable were more like to suffer with postnatal depression showing that cognitions can be seen before depression emerges which supports becks theory. CBT also provides practical applications as the effectiveness of CBT supports the due filles of the cognitive approach as it’s consistently found to be the best treatment for depression especially when used in conjunction with drug treatments for example in a study done by Cuijupers et al who found that if depression is alleviated by challenging irrational thinking it suggests that such thoughts had a role in depression in the first place. However cognitive explanations of depression have been criticised for being reductionist for example the cognitive explanation states that if an individual thinks in a negative way or has negative automatic thoughts they’re likely to develop disorders like depression which weakens the explanation because the theory of depression ignores the fact that biological research has indicated that depression can be down to the low level of the neurotransmitter serotonin and the cognitive approach is seen to be too simplistic. There is another issue that links to the nature versus nurture debate with the diathesis stress model which is a model of interaction between nurture and nature and that if someone is biologically predisposed to developing a mental disorder it’s an environmental factor that triggers the development of that disorder for example if someone’s family member was depressed then it’s not always likely that person will become depressed but if an environmental factor that causes them distress happens then it’ll trigger that disorder to develop.

Answer 11

There are two different strands of CBT one based on becks theory and the other on Ellis ABC model. All CBT starts with an initial assessment in which the patient and therapist identify the patients problems then the patient and therapist agree on a set of goals and the plan of action to achieve the goals. Both forms of CBT (becks and Elliss) aim to identify the negative and irrational thoughts but the approach are different. Becks cognitive therapy will help a patient to identify their negative thoughts in relation to themselves, the world and the future using becks negative triad. The patient and the therapist will work together to challenge these irrational thoughts by discussing evidence for and against them. The patient is encouraged to test the validity of their negative thoughts and they are set homework to challenge and test these negative thoughts. Elliss rational motive behaviour therapy (REBT) is a type of cognitive behavioural therapy that aims to turn irrational thoughts into rational thoughts and resolve the emotional and behavioural problems. Elliss model was expanded to ABCDEF where D was disrupting irrational thoughts and beliefs and E was the effects of disputing and the effective attitude to life and F was the new feelings that are produced. REBT focuses on challenging or disputing the irrational self defeating thoughts and replacing them with effective rational beliefs. Logic disputing so does thinking this way make sense? And empirical disputing g so what is the evidence for this belief and pragmatic disputing so how is this belief likely to help me can all be used to help the patient. With CBT clients complete homework assignments between therapy sessions like asking someone out on a date when they had feared rejection. The homework enables the irrational beliefs to be tested against the reality so empirical disputing. Behavioural activation encourages the client to engage in pleasurable activities they used to enjoy so the therapists provide the clients with an unconditional positive regard to convince the clients of value as humans which leads to client to becoming more active since being active leads to rewards which can be seen as an antidote to depression. A03: However what limits CBT is that it requires motivation and patients with severe depression may not engage with CBT or even attend sessions and the treatment will be ineffective in treating patients. But alternative treatments for example antidepressants dont require the same level of motivation and are maybe more effective in these cases which is a problem for CBT as it can’t be used a sole treatment for severely depressed patients. However there is research support for REBT as Ellis claimed a 90% success rate for REBT in the treatment of depression and a review by Cuijpers et al of 75 studies found that CBT is superior to no treatment but Ellis recognised that therapy wasn’t always effective as some clients didn’t put their revised beliefs into action so therapist competence also explains that there is some variation in CBT outcomes as found by Kuyken and Tsivrikos suggesting that REBT is effective but the effectiveness depends on both the client and therapist. There is also support for behavioural activation as a study conducted by Babyak et al who randomly assigned people with depression to do a course of aerobic exercise with or without an antidepressant drug treatment or both. The three groups exhibited signifiant improvement after four months the exercise group had significantly lower relapse rates than the medication group showing that a change in physical activity can be beneficial in treating depression. Although CBT can be criticised for the overemphasis on the role of cognitions as some psychologists have criticised CBT because it suggests that a persons irrational thinking is the primary cause of depression and CBT doesn’t take into account other factors that might contribute to a persons depression for example a patient who’s suffering from domestic violence or abuse doesn’t need to change their negative/irrational beliefs but in fact their circumstances so CBT would be an ineffective treatment for these patients until their circumstances have changed. However a person suffering from depression could implement both alternative treatments that are available like the most popular which is the use of antidepressant drugs such as SSRIs so the use of drug therapies also require less effort by the client than in CBT. Drug treatment enables a depressed client to cope better with the demands of CBT and a review by Cuijpers et al found that CBT is especially effective is it’s used in conjunction with drug therapy suggesting that using both CBT and drugs might be the best option. Although all methods of treatment for a mental disorder may be equally effective, Luborsky et al reviewed 100 studies comparing different therapies and found only small differences between them in terms of effectiveness and Sloane et al shows that psychological therapies that share many common factors like being able to talk to a sympathetic person and express ones thoughts so the lack of difference between psychotherapies might be the result of commonalities they share aka the dodo bird effect. There is contradictory evidence for the precise role of the cognitive processes yet to be determined so it’s not clear whether the faulty cognitions are the cause of psychopathology or the consequence of it as Lewinsohn studied a group of participants before any of them became depressed and found that those who later became depressed were no more likely to have negative thoughts than those who didn’t develop depression suggesting that hopeless and negative thinking may be the result of depression rather than the cause of it. There are some ethical issues that REBT is a directive therapy aimed at changing a persons cognition can sometimes be done quite forcefully causing a person to become distressed and anxious which is very stress inducing and for some this may be considered an unethical approach.

Answer 12

There are genetic explanations to explaining OCD for example the COMT gene which regulates dopamine production may contribute to OCD which is a less active form of this gene and is more common in OCD patients and produces higher dopamine levels. The SERT gene may also contribute to OCD by reducing serotonin levels and a mutation of this gene was found in two unrelated families where six of the seven members had OCD as found by Ozaki et al. Another explanation is the diathesis stress model where each gene only creates a vulnerability (a diathesis) for OCD and other factors like childhood experiences provide a trigger (stress) for the condition to develop. Other explanations like neural explanations where high dopamine levels and low serotonin levels are associated with OCD an example of this is where high doses of drugs that enhance dopamine induce stereotypical movements in rats whilst antidepressant drugs which increase serotonin activity that reduce symptoms of OCD. The orbitofrontal cortex cortex (ofc) of the frontal lobes and caudate nucleus that are part of the basil ganglia is thought to be abnormal in people with OCD and damage to the caudate nucleus fails to suppress the minor worry signals from the OFC creating a worry circuit. The neurotransmitter serotonin also plays a key role in the operation of these structures and low serotonin levels may cause them to malfunction and dopamine is the basil ganglias main neurotransmitter so high dopamine levels lead to over activity of this region. Further support for the role of serotonin in OCD research examining antidepressants found that drugs which increase the level of serotonin are effective in treating patients with OCD. Dopamine is also implicated in OCD with higher levels of dopamine being associated with some of the symptoms of OCD particularly compulsive behaviours. Brain structures can also explain OCD as there are two brain regions implicate in OCD the basil ganglia and the orbitofrontal cortex. The basil ganglia is the brain structure that’s involved in multiple processes including the coordination of movement. Patients who suffer from head injuries in this region often develop OCD like symptoms following recovery as found by Max et al when the basil ganglia was disconnected from frontal cortex during surgery OCD like symptoms reduced providing support foe the role of basal ganglia in OCD. Another brain region associated with OCD is the orbitofrontal cortex which convers sensory information into thoughts and actions as found by PET scans with higher activity in the orbitofrontal cortex in patients with OCD. One suggestion is that the heightened activity in the OFC is that it increases the conversion of sensory information to actions which results in compulsions and increased activity prevents patients from stopping the behaviours. A03: However the explanations for OCD could be considered biologically reductionist as it ignores other factors for example the biological approach doesn’t take into account cognitions and learning. Some psychologists suggest that OCD may be learnt through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning with a stimulus for example dirt being associated with anxiety and this association is then maintained through operant conditioning where a person avoids dirt and continually washes their hands as hand washing reduces anxiety and negatively reinforces their compulsions. There is also evidence for a genetic basis of OCD which comes from family and twin studies as found by Nestadt et al who discovered that people with a first degree relative with OCD had a 5 times greater lifetime risk of OCD themselves compared to risk levels in the general population as a meta analysis found that identical monozygotic twins are more than twice as likely to develop OCD if the twin had the disorder than the two non identical dizygotic twins as conducted by Billett et al therefore this evidence further supports a genetic basis for OCD but concordance rates are never 100% so environmental factors must play a role. Other research support for genes and the role of OFC comes from Menzies et al who used MRI produced images of brain activity and immediate family members without OCD where the OCD patients and close relatives had reduced grey matter in key regions of the brain including the OFC which further supports the view that an inherited anatomical difference may lead to OCD in certain individuals in future brain scans may be used to detect an OCD risk. The factor for explaining OCD isn’t completely genetic and the environment also plays a role in the development of OCD and OCD isn’t completely inherited because children don’t have the same OCD as their parents because of environmental factors which supports evidence for a neural explanations. Antidepressants work on the serotonin system which has proved effective at reducing symptoms of OCD and those with other biological condition has shown symptoms of OCD suggesting that the biological processes that cause these conditions are responsible for OCD. There are practical explanations from explanations of OCD like gene therapy and gene screening. Gene therapy is an experimental technique that uses genes to treat or prevent diseases and in the future this technique may allow doctors to treat a disorder by inserting a gene into a patients cells instead of using drugs or surgery. A gene screening is an experimental technique used to identify and select for individuals who possess a phenotype of interest in a mutagenised population. However there are other disorders with genetic links to OCD as research suggests that OCD may be an expression of genes linked to other disorders like Tourette’s and autism and so would be a characteristic of a number of different disorders as Paul’s and leckman studied patients with Tourette’s syndrome and concluded that OCD is one form of an expression of the same gene that determines Tourette’s. Obsessive and compulsive behaviour is also found in children with autism and people with anorexia nervous supporting the view that there’s no specific genes unique to OCD but merely act as a predisposing factor towards an obsessive type behaviour. Another weakness is the issue of nature versus nurture so the idea that OCD could either be an inherited trait from a family member or an environmental reason that lead to the development of OCD as it’s difficult to measure OCD purely by the idea of a biological reason or an environmental reason and many people would argue that due to individual differences it can either be inherited or a learnt behaviour or both of those reasons.

Answer 13

The biological approach to treating OCD involves drug therapies including SSRI antidepressants for example Prozac which is the most commonly used drugs to reduce anxiety that’s associated with OCD it works by blocking the reuptake of serotonin in the presynaptic membrane increasing the serotonin concentration at the receptor sites on the post synaptic membrane and since low serotonin levels are implicated in the brains worry circuit that’s increasing the serotonin it may have an effect of normalising the circuit. Tricyclic antidepressants for example anafranil block the transported mechanism that reabsorbs both serotonin and noradrenaline into presynaptic cells that released them which effects the increase to serotonin and noradrenaline levels. Tricyclics has more side effects than SSRIs and so is used as a second line treatment when SSRIs haven’t been effective. Valium is also used to treat OCD by enhancing activity of the gamma aminobutyric acid which had a general quietening effect on many brain scans. Anita anxiety drugs like benzodiazepines react with the GABA receptors on the receiving neuron which makes it harder for a neuron to be stimulated by other neurotransmitters and the neurons activity is slowed down and induced feelings of relaxation. Further research has been done on other drugs like D-cycloserine which has the effect on reducing anxiety and may be an effective treatment for OCD particularly when used in conjunction with psychotherapy. D-cycloserine itself is an antibiotic used in the treatment of tuberculosis and also appears to enhance the transmission of GABA and reduces anxiety as seen in the study done by kushners et al. A03: However whilst drug treatment may be effective all drugs have side effects like nausea, headache and insomnia which are the most common side effects of SSRIs as seen in research by soomro et al. Tricyclics are know to have the worse side effects like hallucinations and irregular heartbeat. Other drugs like benzodiazepines can cause increase aggressiveness and long term memory impairment they’re also addictive so benzodiazepines should be limited to the maximum of four weeks of treatment. Side effects of drugs can be enough to make the patients stop taking the drug and limit the usefulness of drugs as treatment for OCD. However there is considerable evidence for the effectiveness of drug treatments for example in soomro et als research they reviewed 17 studies of the use of SSRIs with OCD patients and found them to be more effective than placebos in reducing the symptoms of OCD for up to three months after treatment whereas most studies only last three to four months for example in Koran et al study and many patients relapse within a few weeks if the medication is stopped as seen in Marina et als research and while drug treatments have shown to be effective in the short term it may not provide a lasting cure. Nowadays drug treatments are preferred to other treatments due to the advantage of drug therapies as it involves little input from the user in terms of effort, time and it requires little monitoring by doctors whereas therapies like CBT require the patients to attend regular meetings and put considerable thought into tackling problems and requiring the therapists time so the benefits of drug therapies are they’re more economical for the health service than psychological therapies and also don’t require time and patience. But the effectiveness of drugs may be exaggerated by publication bias as Turner et al claims there’s publication bias toward studies that show the positive outcome of antidepressant drugs in the treatment of OCD. A consequence of publication bias is that the research may exaggerate the beneficial effects of drugs so drug companies also have a strong interest in the success of their products and much of the research is funded by these companies and selective publication can lead doctors to make inappropriate treatment decisions which may not be in the best interest of the patients. However biological treatments are cost effective as biological treatments including antidepressants and anti anxiety drugs are relatively cost effective in comparison to psychological treatments like CBT and many doctors prefer the use of drugs over psychological treatments as it’s a cost effective solution for treating OCD and depression which is beneficial for health service providers. Some cases of OCD follow trauma as OCD can have a range of causes and sometimes it is a response to a traumatic life event so it may not be appropriate to use drugs when treating cases that follow trauma and it may be more beneficial to use CBT. Drug treatments are also criticised for only treating the symptoms of the disorder and not the actual cause as SSRIs work by increasing levels of serotonin in the brain which reduces anxiety and alleviates the symptoms of OCD but it doesn’t treat the underlying cause of OCD. Once the patient stops taking the drug they’re prone to relapse suggesting that psychological treatments may be more effective as a long term solution. Following on biological therapies like drugs that are used to treat OCD often just treat the symptoms and dont cure the mental illness for example stop people feeling anxious which often prevents them from carrying out their obsessions and compulsions for example a person stops worrying about what will happen if they don’t flick the light switch on and off 10 times which is a weakness because the drugs aren’t removing the root cause of OCD but instead masking symptoms so if an individual stops taking drugs the OCD and symptoms will return.

Answer 14

There are genetic explanations to explaining OCD for example the COMT gene which regulates dopamine production may contribute to OCD which is a less active form of this gene and is more common in OCD patients and produces higher dopamine levels. The SERT gene may also contribute to OCD by reducing serotonin levels and a mutation of this gene was found in two unrelated families where six of the seven members had OCD as found by Ozaki et al. Another explanation is the diathesis stress model where each gene only creates a vulnerability (a diathesis) for OCD and other factors like childhood experiences provide a trigger (stress) for the condition to develop. Other explanations like neural explanations where high dopamine levels and low serotonin levels are associated with OCD an example of this is where high doses of drugs that enhance dopamine induce stereotypical movements in rats whilst antidepressant drugs which increase serotonin activity that reduce symptoms of OCD. The orbitofrontal cortex cortex (ofc) of the frontal lobes and caudate nucleus that are part of the basil ganglia is thought to be abnormal in people with OCD and damage to the caudate nucleus fails to suppress the minor worry signals from the OFC creating a worry circuit. A03: A problem with genetic explanations is that there are too many candidate genes that have been identified and psychologists can’t pin down all the candidate genes that are involved and each variation only increases the risk by a fraction meaning it’s useless as it has little predictive value. However there is research to support genetic explanations for OCD like Choy et al showing that serotonin can cause OCD at low levels. Choy tested SSRIs which is a type of drug that blocks the reuptake of serotonin and found it was successful in most patients showing that low levels of serotonin is linked with OCD so a strength of genetic explanations for OCD is supporting research which highlights the implication of serotonin in the development in OCD. There is also research that says OCD can be inherited through genes for example Soomro studied people with OCD and family members and found that if a first generation relative had OCD then an individual is five times more likely to get it at some point in their lives than if a relative didn’t have it further supporting the genetic explanation and suggests that OCD runs in the family. However the serotonin and OCD link may not be unique to OCD as many people who have OCD become depressed which causes disruption to the serotonin system and patients with low serotonin may be this way because they’re depressed not because they have OCD which goes against genetic explanations for OCD. But there is evidence for a genetic bases of OCD that comes from family and two studies as Nestadt et al found that people with a first degree relative with OCD had a five times greater lifetime risk of developing OCD themselves compared to the risk levels in the general population. Further support comes from a meta analysis which found that identical twins are more than twice as likely to develop OFD if the twin had the disorder than non identical twins as found by Billet et al so this evidence supports a genetic basis for OCD but concordance rates are never 100% so environmental factors must also play a role. Although a limitation of the genetic explanation is that not everyone with these genes has OCD which means that there must be other factors that can cause or contribute to an individual getting OCD for example environmental influences like a negative experience with hygiene and becoming sick therefore genetic explanations for OCD don’t take other factors like the environment into account and other psychologists for example behaviourists would argue that OCD is a learnt condition. There is though research support for genes and the role of the OFC as Menzies et al used MRI to produce images of brain activity in OCD patients and their immediate family members without OCD. OCD patients and their close relatives had reduced grey matter in key regions of the brain including the OFC which supports the view that inherited anatomical differences may lead to OCD in certain individuals and consequently in the future brain scans may be used to detect an OCD risk. Finally the issue of nature versus nurture is a big consideration when using biological explanations for OCD as many psychologists particularly behaviourists would argue that OCD is learned and that people develop OCD through classical conditioning and that it’s maintained through operant conditioning whereas psychologists who side with the biological approach would argue that genetic causes are what cause a person to develop OCD and both these explanations are reductionist as the behavioural approach doesn’t consider genetic factors and the biological approach don’t consider environmental factors. Many people would argue though that it’s both of these reasons that explain a person developing OCD.

Answer 15

Behaviourism is one of the most influential approaches in modern psychology and it’s central claim is that almost all human behaviour is a result of learning. To explore the learning process, behaviourists favoured the lab experiment over other methods because this kind of research was objective ie it focused on observable events and could be rigorously controlled. Classical conditioning is one of the ideas discovered by Pavlov during his research with dogs where he repeatedly presented a bell which is a neutral stimulus (NS) with food which is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) which lead to salivation which is the unconditioned response (UCR). After teaching the dog that the bell signalled food the dog learned to associate the bell wit food so the NA produces the same response of the UCS and the NS becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS) producing the conditioned response (CR). So if the conditioned stimulus being the bell is presented without the UCS a few time extinction occurs and the CR is no longer produced. Spontaneous recovery can occur if the CS and UCS is paired again and conditioned animals will also respond to other stimulus to the CS this is stimulus generalisation. Another behaviourist idea is operant conditioning which was discovered by Skinner and his theory suggests whether or not an animal repeats a particular behaviour that depends on the consequence which is either positive or negative renforcement. Positive reinforcement occurs when a behaviour produces a consequence that’s rewarding. Negative reinforcement occurs when a behaviour removes an unpleasant consequence and decreases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated. Behaviourists have significantly contributed to still developing the recognition of psychology as a science. The experimental methods used by Pavlov and skinner rejected an earlier emphasis in psychology on the introspection and encouraged research that focused on the more objective because it’s more measurable and there’s dimensions of behaviour. According to behaviourists, this emphasis on scientific method has led to an increasingly valid and reliable understanding of human behaviour and these methods have also helped psychology to gain credibility and status as scientific discipline which attracts more funding and research opportunities. A03: However there is an over reliance on non human animals in research and skinner research is criticised because his experiments involved the study of rats and pigeons rather than humans and critics claim that human beings have free will rather than having their behaviour determined by positive and negative reinforcement. Skinner argued that free will is merely an illusion and what we believe are behaviours that are chosen by free will are actually the product of environmental conditioning. But classical conditioning can be applied to the treatment of phobias as systematic desensitisation (SD) is a therapy based on classical conditioning and works by eliminating the learned anxious response the CR that’s associated with the feared object or situation so the CS or leaned response of anxiety is replaces with relaxation so the patient is no longer anxious in the presence of the feared object or situation so the therapy is effective for a range of phobias like spiders aka arachnophobia and flying aka aerophobia. A positive of operant conditioning is that it’s based on experimental research as Skinners research is reliant on the experimental method using controlled conditions to discover the causal relationships between variables. He used Skinner boxes to manipulate the consequences of behaviour (the IV) so he could accurately measure the effects on the rats behaviour so the DV which allowed him to establish a cause and effect relationship between the consequences of behaviour ie positive or negative and the future frequency of its occurrence. However the behaviourist approach has a limited perspective on behaviour and behaviourists have been accused of ignoring other levels of explanation like cognitive factors of emotional factors and for treating human beings as a product of their conditioning alone meaning they ignore evidence for the role of these other factors in shaping behaviour. Skinner argued that even complex behaviours like our interaction with the opposite sex or pathological behaviour could be better understood by studying the reinforcement history of the individual. There are ethical and practical issues of the animal experiments as Skinners rats were exposed to stressful and aversive conditions which may affected the rats reactions and therefore the results. Not to mention that it was probably very stress inducing for the rats to be shocked which is considered very unethical and devalues the research somewhat. However the research has provided a number of practical applications and techniques to shape behaviour for example the use of rewards in education has helped teachers and students when learning during lessons that they’re rewarded for their hard work which positively reinforces their studying and therefore allows them to progress and enhance their knowledge. But there is the issue of the over reliance on non human animals in research with free will and determinism and the idea that animals is what we base our conclusions on because this ignores the idea of free will and that we can make our own choices of how we choose to behave and act and the other idea of determinism also weakens the behaviourist approach to understanding human behaviour because many other factors have a part in the way we behave not just learnt behaviour so it ignores the idea that biology also contributes to the way we learn and behave. Behaviourism in itself has a limited perspective on behaviour and many would argue that we should look at the idea that holism is an approach to understanding human behaviour that focuses on looking at things as a whole which contrasts with reductionism which chooses o break things up into components and understand them that way.

Answer 16

The social learning theory approach involves learning through observation of others and imitating the behaviours that are rewarded so for example if someone sees someone being rewarded for a behaviour they’ll repeat that behaviour to be rewarded the person they imitate are usually seen as models. Modelling is a form of learning in which a person being the model performs a behaviour and another individual observes them and if the behaviour is reward they imitate this behaviour. The mediational processes enable the observer to store mental representations of this behaviour and it’s probable consequences and imitation is the process of copying an observer behaviour and it’s more likely to occurs when identification takes place. Children are more likely to identify with and learn from models who are similar to them and children who observe a model receiving rewards are also more likely to imitate their behaviour aka vicarious reinforcement. One of the most common studies to do with the social learning theory is by Bandura et al who conducted the bobo doll study to examine the social learning theory in children. The procedure consisted of children who observed an aggressive or non aggressive adult model interacting with a Bobo doll and this was tested for imitative learning. They found that children who observed the aggressive model reproduced much of the models aggressive behaviour both verbally and physically so insulting it as assaulting it and the children who observed the non aggressive model showed almost no aggression towards the doll. Afterwards in a follow up study the children who saw the model being rewarded for the aggressive acts so vicarious reinforcement were more likely to demonstrate aggression in their own play. The social learning theory (SLT) is based on the idea of observational learning so learning that occurs through observation and imitation of behaviour that’s performed by models in a social environment. Unlike the behaviourist approach from which the SLT derives this theory recognises the importance of cognitive processing of informational stimuli being the mediational processes and it rejects the notion that learning is purely the outcome of a stimulus response loop. The name implies that learning is a social phenomenon. For SLT to take place someone must model an attitude or a behaviour in the context defined by four distinct characteristics: attention, retention, reproduction and motivation. If these factors are implemented then imitation can take place and if the observed behaviour is rewarded either directly or vicariously then imitation is more likely to occur. A03: However SLT disregard other potential influences on nue sous for example in explaining the development of gender role behaviour social learning theorists would emphasise the importance of gender specific modelling but in real life the child is exposed to many different influences which interact in complex ways including genetic predispositions conditioning personality factors and media portrayals of gender which causes serious problems for social learning researchers as it’s difficult to show one particular thing where social learning is the main causal influence. But SLT does have applications in real life including understanding criminal behaviour and the probability of someone engaging in criminal behaviour increases when they identify with models who commit crimes and they develop the expectation of positive consequences for behaviour a study of this was done by Ulrich who found that the strongest predictor of violent behaviour in adolescence was the association with delinquent peers where violence was both modelled and rewarded and Siegel and Mccomick suggest that young people with deviant attitudues for example low self control seek out peers with similar attitudes and behaviours as it’s more fun to be with them than less reckless counterparts. There is research to support for identification done by Fox and Bailenson who used computer generated virtual humans who looked similar or dissimilar to participants engaging in exercise or merely loitering and found that the participants who viewed the virtual model exercising engaged in more exercise in 24 hours following the experiment than the participants who viewed the virtual model merely loitering or the dissimilar model exercising. They concluded that greater identification with the model leads to more learning because it’s easier to visualise yourself in place of the model. But the theory doesn’t tell use why a child would be motivated to perform the same behaviours in the absence of the model and in a later study Bandura and Walters found that those in the no reward no punishment control group were so somewhere in between the high/low levels of aggression. Bandura called this type of learning vicarious learning involving children learning about the likely consequences of actions and adjusting the subsequent behaviour accordingly. A positive of the social learning theory approach is the importance of identification in social learning for example health campaigns have been made most matching the characters model with the desired behaviour with the target audience in terms of physical characteristics attitudes and behaviours and the greater identification with the model is expected to influence social learning for example Andsager et al found a perceived similarity to the model in an anti alcohol advertisement which positively related to the messages effectiveness and is based on the findings that researchers suggest some of a messages potency may be lost if an individual finds it difficult to identify with a given model. The social learning theory can explain the differences in aggressive and non aggressive behaviour both between and within individuals. The culture of violence theory (Wolfgang and Ferracuti proposed that people respond differently in different situations because they’ve observed that aggression is rewarded in some situations and not others and so they learn the behaviours that are appropriate to particular contexts. Three are ethical issues when it comes to testing the social learning theory experimentally due to exposing children to aggressive behaviour with the knowledge that they may reproduce it in their own behaviour raising ethical issues concerning the need to protect the participants from psychological and physical harm this resulted in experimental studies like the bobo doll study would no longer be allowed today under modern ethical guidelines meaning it’s difficult to test the experimental hypotheses about social learning of aggressive behaviour in children and consequently it’s difficult to establish scientific credibility of the theory by this means. The social learning theory can be used to explain cultural differences in aggression for instance among kung San of the Kalahari desert aggression is comparatively rare because there’s an absence of direct reinforcement of aggressive behaviour as well as absence of aggressive models meaning there’s little opportunity or motivation for Kung San children to acquire behaviours.

Answer 17

The cognitive approach in psychology is the study of internal process these cognitive processes include memory, attention, perception, emotion and awareness. These processes can’t be studied directly but must be understood by interference and logical reasoning from measuring observable behaviour. The cognitive approach studies the mind as an informative processor with inputs, processing, storage, retrieved and outputs for example in a computer model of memory we input information via our senses, working memory is like computers as RAM ( random access memory) and long term memory are similar to the information stored on the hard drive. A schema is a cognitive framework that helps organise and interpret information and allows us to take shortcuts when interpreting large amounts of information but can lead to stereotypes as they have to make assumptions about people based on incomplete information. Cognitive psychologists often develop theoretical models for example the WMM (working memory model) which visually represent the mental process. Theoretical and computer models are proposed to attention to explain and infer information about mental processes for example the information processing model describes the mind as if it’s a computer in terms of the relationship between incoming information to be encoded from the senses and manipulating this mentally for example a storage, a decision and consequently directing an output for example a behaviour. An example of this might be an artist looking at a picturesque landscape and deciding which paint colour suits the given area before brushing the selected colour onto the canvas. Cognitive neuroscience studies use a living brain using brain imaging technology like positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI) scans that show parts of the brain that are active during different tasks. The cognitive approach assumes that the mind actively processes information from the senses being touch, taste etc. Also that between stimulus and response are complex mental processes which can be studied scientifically. Lastly that humans are seen as data processing systems and that the workings of a computer and the human mind are alike as they encode and store information and have outputs. A03: A problem with the cognitive approach is that use of a computer model analogy is limited as terms like coding storage and retrieval are borrowed directly from the field of computing but there are important differences between the way computers and humane process information because computers don’t make mistakes nor do they ignore or forget information not to mention that human behaviour is affected by emotion and motivation and also systematic cognitive biases which limits the usefulness of explaining human thoughts and behaviours using computer models. However the cognitive approach has useful applications as research in social psychology in social cognition has helped psychologists better understand how we interpret the actions of others and we can use this to gain better knowledge of we are as humans. In other areas of psychology like psychopathology the cognitive approach is used to explain how much of dysfunctional behaviour is shown by people traced back to faulty thinking processes and these insights have led to successful treatment using cognitive based interventions for people with disorders such as depression and OCD. The cognitive approach provides a strong focus on internal mental processes which the behaviourists approach doesn’t so it’s an in depth explanation of how memory works and on how we think and act. However the cognitive approach studies lack ecological validity as many of them tend to use tasks that have little in common with the participants natural everyday experiences for example memory experiments use test materials like random word lists/digits and these are quite different from how we use memory in everyday life such as remembering appointments and much of the research in cognitive psychology is criticised for lacking ecological validity as it fails to reflect behaviours that occur in real life settings. The approach is also reductionist for example it reduces human behaviour down to individual processes like memory and attention which weakness the approach because humans are a product of all processes working together and not just individual parts. It could also be argued that the cognitive models over simplify explanations for complex mental processes that are far more intricate and in depth. Cognitive processes also can be directly observed and it relies heavily on interference for example critics of the loftus and palmers leading questions experiments pointed out the validity of the reconstructive memory hypothesis can’t be sure that the memories have changed as the researchers couldn’t observe memories only the answers given which mayve resulted in demand characteristics or even a poor judgment of speed. Overall the cognitive approach lacks being scientific on the basis that it’s subjective in what’s taken from the findings and assuming the findings are a result of invisible processes that are heavily subjective and lead to a self fulfilling prophecy and internal validity raised issues. The cognitive approach uses scientific methods and the use of experimental method provides researchers with a rigorous method for collecting and evaluating evidence in order to reach accurate conclusions about how the mind works with carefully designed controlled lab experiments that produce large quantities of empirical data which form the basis of theories about cognitive processes meaning that conclusions about how the mind works are based on objective evidence not just a self report/ conscious introspection.

Answer 18

The biological approach views human beings as biological organisms and provides biological explanations of all aspects of psychological functioning. Genes carry out instructions for a particular characteristic like intelligence and the genotype is a genetic code in DNA and the phenotype is the physical appearance that results from this inherited information. How these characteristics develop depends on the interaction between the genes and the environment, the behaviour can also be influenced by hormone chemicals produced by endocrine glands like the pituitary gland and these hormones are secreted directly into the bloodstream and travel to their target cells that causes the physiological reaction. The cognitive approach assumptions include: that there’s a direct correlation between brain activity and cognition, biochemical imbalances can affect behaviour, brain physiology can affect behaviour and that behaviour can be inherited as it’s determined by genetic information. Biological structures play an important role in behaviour as the nervous system carries messages around the body in the form of electrical signals in the neurons and neurotransmitters are molecules that transmit messages from one neuron to the next and they diffuse across a synapse and bind to the receptors where they may cause excitation or inhibition of an impulse. Darwin’s theory of evolution describes how behaviours that make individuals more likely to survive and reproduce are passed on through genes as a result these genes and their associated behaviours become more common in future generations this is the process of natural selection but this theory could be argued that it ignores other factors and only focuses on the nature side of the nature versus nurture debate as other factors also contribute to the way we behave and act like the environment were raised in. A03: The biological approach is seen as reductionist and is criticised for the belief that complex behaviour can be broken down into the action of genes, neurochemicals and hormones for instance many explanations of mental disorders are reductionist because of the genes and neurochemical imbalances that are believed to be the main cause of these disorders and we can’t fully understand behaviour without the account of other factors that influence it that include cognitive, emotional and cultural factors. A positive aspect of the biological approach is that it uses scientific method and experiments to investigate behaviour as experimental studies take place in highly controlled environments so other researchers are able to replicate the research studies adding to the validity of the original findings if it can be reproduced with the use of sophisticated imaging and recording techniques that have increased precision and objectivity of experimental research in this area which results in these techniques that have contributed to scientific validity of the biological approach. The methods used for studying the biological approach like scanning research techniques are useful for investigating functions of the brain : being an organ with obvious involvement in our behaviour that would otherwise be unobservable. The biological approach may not always be the best explanation for example there are dangers of genetic explanations of criminal behaviour as critics claim it may lead to a genetic screening of the population and discrimination against those with a genetic predisposition for criminality which creates a danger that genes might be used to explain criminality despite the fast the connection between the genes and complex behaviour is far from straightforward but there may be positive consequences too if the individuals have a genetic predisposition for criminality it could be helped to develop coping skills to protect them from it’s influence. Another issue with using the biological approach to explain criminal behaviour is the idea of free will and determinism as the approach ignores the idea that people have free will and that or behaviour can only be explained through biological factors and not the fact we have our own minds and can make our own decisions on how we act and behave. There are real life applications with clear predictions for example about the effects of neurotransmitters or biological rhythms on behaviour for example research into the role of a neurochemical imbalance in depression has led to the development of effective drug treatments, further demonstrating the value of adopting a biological approach as treatments can benefit people’s health and well-being. The biological approach is also reductionist as it breaks down the components of how we act and behave biologically and doesn’t view behaviour holistically by looking things as a whole where behaviour isn’t broken down into components. Th biological approach uses case studies that investigate normal behaviour by observing behaviour abnormality alongside any corresponding changes in biology for example an early case study had seen an apparent personality alteration observed in phineas gage in the mid 1800s after a railroad construction accident that drastically changed his physiology by forcing an iron rod through his brains frontal lobe which has given scientists more information on the way the brain works and which parts of the brain affect us and the way we act and behave.

Answer 19

Assumptions of the psychodynamic approach include: unconscious activity is the key determinate of how we behave, we possess innate drivers or instincts that energise our minds to motivate behaviour as we develop through our lives, our three part personality being psyche is comprised of the ID, ego and superego, childhood experiences have significant importance in determining our personality when we reach adulthood. Psychodynamic theories emphasise the change and development in an individual and unconscious motives and desires and the importance of early childhood experiences that shape our personality. Freud’s psychoanalysis theory suggests that the unconscious mind reveals itself through Freudian slips with creativity and neurotic symptoms. He also described the structure of personality with three parts in conflict so the ID which has impulsive physical appetites including the libido, the ego which mediates between the ID and the superego and finally the superego consisting of the conscience which internalises societal rules and the ego ideal which is determined by parental expectations. Freud also focused on psychosexual stages which emphasises the libido being sexual energy as the main drive but is expressed differently at each stage of development which includes: oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital. For example during the phallic stage which is age 3 to 6 sexual energy is focused on the genitals and boys experience the Oedipus complex which is a desire to posses the mother and get rid of the father causing castration anxiety. Freud also discovered defence mechanisms which prevent traumatic memories from becoming conscious and causing anxiety for example repression is an unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts and impulses and denial is the refusal to accept reality and displacement involves redirecting hostile feelings onto an innocent person or object. A03: The psychodynamic approach often uses case studies to support the theories so the approach doesn’t use controlled experiments to collect empirical evidence therefore the approach is considered far less scientific than other approaches. The psychodynamic approach is a pioneering approach to understanding human behaviour and has suggested new methodological procedures for gathering evidence using case studies and the development of the approach based on the observations of behaviour rather than introspection and from observations Freud and his followers were able to first demonstrate the potential of psychological treatments for disorders like depression and anxiety. The approach has led to successful treatments for example de maat et al did a large scale review of psychotherapy studies and concluded that psychoanalysis has produced significant improvements in symptoms. Psychoanalysis is a comprehensive theory as well as the therapeutic applications, psychoanalysis is used to explain many other aspects of human behaviour outside of the realm of psychology as psychoanalysis is used as a form of literary criticism for example in Shakespeare’s play hamlet he has many aspect of hamlets psyche is seen as a projection of Shakespeare’s own mind which results in being able to interpret works using psychoanalytic concepts delving into the mind of an author or fictional character. However many of Freud’s ideas are considered non falsifiable as the theories may appear to reflect evidence but you can’t observe relevant constructs directly (namely the unconscious mind) to test them scientifically such that they could be proved wrong. A philosopher of science Karl Popper famously argued that a theory is not scientific if it’s not falsifiable. The psychodynamic approach might also be seen as a culture biased approach as sue and sue argue that psychoanalysis has little relevance for people from non western cultures, they claim that many cultural groups don’t value discussion and insight in the same way that western cultures do and in China for example a person who is depressed or anxious avoids thoughts that cause distress rather than being willing to discuss them openly and contrasts the western belief that open discussion and the insight is helpful in therapy. Psychoanalysis is considered a culturally biased approach and can only be applied to modern western culture and any results gained from studies can only be applied to western cultures and not other cultures as other cultures may not have the same values and beliefs as the western ones and so we aren’t able to generalise any results about psychoanalysis or psychotherapy to other cultures as it wouldn’t be fair to make assumptions. Psychoanalysis is also unfair in the sense that most of the research is gender biased as Freud seemed content to remain ignorant of the female sexuality and how it may differ from male sexuality which has led psychoanalysts like Karen horney who broke away from Freudian theory to criticise his work particularly his views on women and their development as it dismisses women and their sexuality in such a way that’s problematic because Freud treated many female patients but also because his theories are still so influential today.

Answer 20

The basic assumptions of the humanistic psychology is that we have free will and the ability to make significant personal choices with biological/societal constraints. One of the theories to do with the humanistic approach is maslows theory who described the hierarchy of needs in which people must fulfil each level before moving to the next which is physiological, then safety, then love/belonging, then esteem and self - actualisation at the top. Rogers theory of humanistic psychology focuses on the self as Rogers claimed our two basic needs are unconditional positive regard from other people and feelings of self worth that develop from childhood interactions with parents. Conditions of worth is the perception acceptance from others that depends on meeting their expectations and the more similar our self concept and our ideal self is the greater our psychological health and state of congruence is. Most people experience some incongruence and use defence mechanisms to feel less threatened and Rogers believed that people can creatively solve their own problems and become more authentic (true to self). Humanistic therapists provide empathy and unconditional positive regard facilitating a client in finding themselves with self actualisation. The evidence for the existence of the hierarchy of needs is empirically thin as expected from an approach that disputes validity of empirical research. Some concepts within the hierarchy of needs for example self actualisation is difficult to operationalise and difficult to test empirically and humanistic psychologists are typically against nomothetic methods of investigation providing any research support for the abstract connects becomes difficult if not impossible and psychologists are unable to provide any research support for the existence of the hierarchy of needs and other aspects of humanistic psychology making the theories/concepts questionable. A03: A downside to the humanistic approach is the research methods don’t establish causality and so evaluating the humanistic approach scientifically is difficult because most of the evidence used to support the approach fails to establish a causal relationship between variables for example Rogers research in particular was an advocate of non experimental research methods arguing that the requirements of experimental methods make it impossible to verify the results of counselling and some studies have shown personal growth as a result of receiving humanistic counselling but these results don’t show that therapy necessarily caused the changes. However there is research with adolescents that supports Rogers theory of conditions of worth involving individuals who experience conditional positive regard likely to display more false self behaviour doing things that meet others expectations and even clash with their own values for example teenagers who feel they’ve fulfil certain conditions in order to gain parents approval frequently end up disliking themselves, which is consistent with Rogers predictions of adolescents who created a false self pretending to be the kind of person his/her parents would love is more likely to develop depression. Many psychologists praise the humanistic approach for its positive and holistic focus and humanistic psychologists unlike other psychologists don’t try and reduce the behaviour and experience to simpler component parts for example biological psychologists reduce psychological disorders to neuro chemical imbalances and/or genetic inheritance in contrast humanistic psychologists put forward a holistic view of human nature and is the only approach that attempts to consider all aspects of human nature in a holistic manner while promoting free will and human choice. However humanistic psychology gives an overly idealised and unrealistic view of human nature and critics argue that people aren’t inherently growth oriented as humanistic theories suggest and the approach doesn’t adequately recognise people’s capacity from self destructive behaviour and the view that personality development is directed only by innate potential for growth is sen as oversimplification as it makes the assumption that all problems arise from blocked self actualisation suggesting that encouraging people to focus on their own self development rather than situational forces isn’t realistic in modern society. Although the approach isn’t reductionist which strengthens the approach as the individual isn’t seen as the product of neurons firing or stimulus response links which makes it a lot different compared to other approaches that only focus on certain factors and ignore other factors like biological or environmental. With the humanistic approach there’s a real world application as humanistic psychology has major influence on psychological counselling for example contemporary therapists use Rogers ideas of unconditional positive regard to help clients work toward self awareness meaning it’s a useful theory with real world applications and has helped improve the outlook on many patients support from psychological issues. There are cultural differences for some theories within the humanistic approach as the hierarchy of needs had later development to theory and Maslow did acknowledge that for some people the needs may appear in a different order and is borne out by cross cultural evidence for example a study in China found that belonging took priority over physiological needs and self actualisation related to the contributions to the community rather than individual development and many studies confirm Europeans and Americans focus more on personal identity in defining self concept whereas China, Japan and Korea define self concept in terms of social relationships.

Answer 21

The cognitive approach studies the mind as an information processor with inputs, processing , storage, retrieval and outputs for example in a computer model of memory we input information via our senses working memory is like a computers RAM (random access memory) and long term memory are similar to information stored on a hard drive. Cognitive psychologists often develop theoretical models for example the working memory model to visually represent a mental process. A schema is a cognitive framework that helps to organise and interpret information and schemas allow us to take shortcuts when interpreting large amounts of information but can lead to stereotypes as we make assumptions about people based on incomplete information. Cognitive psychologists are interested in how people understand, diagnose and solve problems. Cognitive research focuses on how our brains process information and research tends to take place in a lab than in real life settings. The cognitive approach states that cognitive disorders have been learned and so can be unlearned. A03: However a problem with the cognitive approach is that it claims that the mind is like a computer which is often implied through the use of computer models and people argue that humans are very different from computers for example we have emotions, we forget things and we make mistakes unlike computers which matters because the use of computer models and analogies provides a weak comparison to human thinking and behaviour and provides us with little insight into complexities of human thinking. But what the cognitive approach does do is looks at thought processes which are ignored by other psychologists especially behaviourists so processes like memory, attention and perception have been studied as they have an effect on our behaviour. A strength of the psychodynamic approach is that it’s focuses on the effects that childhood experiences have on the developing personality. A problem with the psychodynamic approach is it’s unfalsifiable because the assumptions can’t be scientifically measured or proved wrong. The similarities between the approaches is that each theory is used to define the mentality of men as it explains that mental illness and it determines a way to control it if necessary. Also each theory has its own way that focuses on the human mind and reaction to the environment. Differences between the approches is the different methods of investigation as the cognitive approach uses observational methods for example piaget used the daily observation of children playing and experimentation such as experiments comparing the ability of two different age groups to pass conversation tests. Piaget was looking at the kind of mistakes that children of a different age group make. Piagets theory provides a detailed description of the development but doesn’t really explain it properly and by focusing on the child’s mistakes it might’ve overlooked more important abilities that children do possess. Psychodynamic psychologists however used clinical case studies, dream analysis and free association to research their theory. Freud used to investigate his patients in detail and deeply analyse and interpreted all of what they said and did.

Answer 22

The biological approach views human beings as biological organisms and provides biological explanations of all aspects of psychological functioning. Genes carry out instructions for a particular characteristic like intelligence and the genotype is a genetic code in DNA and the phenotype is the physical appearance that results from this inherited information. How these characteristics develop depends on the interaction between the genes and the environment, the behaviour can also be influenced by hormone chemicals produced by endocrine glands like the pituitary gland and these hormones are secreted directly into the bloodstream and travel to their target cells that causes the physiological reaction. Biological structures play an important role in behaviour as the nervous system carries messages around the body in the form of electrical signals in the neurons and neurotransmitters are molecules that transmit messages from one neuron to the next and they diffuse across a synapse and bind to the receptors where they may cause excitation or inhibition of an impulse. Behaviour can also be influenced by hormones which are chemicals produced by endocrine glands like the pituitary gland and hormones are secreted directly into the bloodstream where they travel to their target cells causing a physiological reaction. Darwin’s theory of evolution describes how behaviours that make individuals more likely to survive and reproduce are passed on through genes as a result these genes and their associated behaviours become more common in future generations this is the process of natural selection but this theory could be argued that it ignores other factors and only focuses on the nature side of the nature versus nurture debate as other factors also contribute to the way we behave and act like the environment were raised in. The main assumption of the biological approach is that our thinking and behaviour is strongly determined by biological factors like the structure and functioning of the nervous system and this is influence by genetic and evolutionary factors. A03: The biological approach develops theories about disorders and generalises them to apply to everyone. It doesn’t take into account the view that humans are unique an example of this is the general adaptation syndrome that assumes everyone responds in the same way to stress but doesn’t take into account that some people have more support than others. But the biological approach is very scientific because the experiments used are measurable, objective and can be repeated to test for reliability. A strength of the behaviourist approach is the use of rigorous, experimental methods of research that enhances the credibility of science as scientific discipline. But a weakness of the behaviourist approach is the principle of operant and classical conditioning which doesn’t account for spontaneous behaviour in humans. The similarities between the approaches is the use of rigours experimental methods of research enhances the credibility of science as a scientific discipline and the biological approach are very scientific because the experiments used are measurable, objective and can be repeated to test for reliability. The differences between the biological and behaviours is that the biological approach believes in a nature viewpoint as the approach believes that behaviour is controlled by your genes, hormones and neurochemistry whereas the behaviourist approach believes in the nurture viewpoint as the approach believes all our behaviour is learned through the environment. The similarities between the behaviourist and the biological approach is that they’re both deterministic and it implies that humans have no free will and another similarity between the biological and behaviourist approach is they both have practical applications that help improve the quality of life of humans. The difference between the approaches is that the behaviourist approach rejects the possible role of biological factors in human behaviour, unlike the biological approach which considers nature as an important factor.

Answer 23

Scanning techniques are used to help to see what regions of the brain are responsible for what for example we know that language is part of the Broca’s area. There are few different scanning techniques one of them being FMRI which stands for functional magnetic resonance imaging which measures the change in blood oxygenation and flow indicating increased neural activity in a particular brain area so FMRI images are useful for identifying which areas of the brain are involved in particular mental activities. Another technique is EEGs which stands for electroencephalograms which measure electrical activity in the brain via electrodes that are placed on the scalp. EEGs show brainwaves over time and EEG patterns in patients with epilepsy show spikes of electrical activity and Alzheimer’s patients often show an overall slowing of electrical activity. Another technique is ERPs which stands for event related potentials which are very small voltage changes that are triggered by specific stimuli or cognitive events. Sensory ERPs can occur in the first 100 milliseconds after the stimulus is presented; cognitive ERPs are generated later and demonstrate information processing. A03: However there are issues for example post mortem examinations can examine brain structures in more detail than FMRI and EEG for example post mortem studies of the brain have enabled researchers to discover structural abnormalities and neurochemical changes in schizophrenia however diverse causes of death with the use of drugs and age of death may affect the brain tissue so there are many confounding variables. Another problem is the data can only be collected retrospectively when it’s too late to test the hypotheses about cognitive function relating to abnormalities. But FMRI is a non invasive way of scanning the brain without exposure to harmful radiation and FMRI offers a more objective and reliable measure of psychological processes than is possible with verbal reports. However FMRI measures the changes in blood flow in the brain so it’s not a direct measure or neural activity in particular brain areas. Critics argue that FMRI overlooks networked nature of brain activity as it focuses only on a localised activity in the brain. A strength of EEG is that it’s useful in clinical diagnosis of epilepsy as seizures show as characteristic spikes. The EEG technique also provides the recording of the brains activity in real time rather than still images of the passive brain but the EEG can only detect activity in the superficial brain regions and can’t reveal what’s going on in the deeper regions like the hypothalamus or hippocampus. The neighbouring electors can pick up electrical activity from overlapping areas so the EEG can’t pinpoint the exact source of activity. The problem with using FMRI is that it’s expensive compared to other techniques and can only capture a clear image if the person stays still which is inconvenient and difficult to use. ERPs are used to measure the response to a specific stimulus so it can measure the processing of the stimuli even in the absence of behavioural response making it possible to monitor brain processes without it requiring the person to respond verbally however ERPs are very small and are difficult to pick out from other electrical activity in the brain so it takes many trials to gain meaningful data. Another limitation of the ERP technique is that similarly to ERG electrical activities occurring deep in the brain are recorded. There are also methodological issues with the scanning techniques as there is a lack of standardisation in methodology which makes it difficult to confirm the findings. But a good aspect of FMRI is the spatial resolution which is the smallest feature scanner that can detect and an important feature of brain scanning techniques so the greater spatial resolution allows psychologists to discriminate between the different brain regions with greater accuracy and FMRI scanne have a spatial resolution of approximately 1-2 mm which is significantly greater than other techniques like EEG or ERP so psychologists can determine the activity of different brain regions with greater accuracy when using FMRI compared to EEG or ERP.

Answer 24

Biological rhythms lasting about 24 hours adapt to the body to meet the demands of the day/night cycle aka circadian rhythms. This free running internal circadian clock maintains it’s cycle of 24 to 25 hours even in the absence of external cues and disrupted by major changes in sleep schedule like jet travel or shift work. The sleep wake cycle is alternating states of sleep and waking that are dependent on the 24 hour circadian cycle that’s controlled by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus. The strongest sleep drive is usually from 2am to 4am and from 1pm to 3pm and the sleepiness more intense if we’re sleep deprived. Homeostatic drive for sleep increases gradually throughout the day as we use up energy in activities. Environmental light levels cause neural signals to be sent to the SCN so circadian rythma can be synchronised with daylight hours. This is photo entertainment, the core body temperature is the lower about 36c at around 4:30pm and at it’s highest about 38c at around 6pm and it also dips between 2pm and 4pm. Hormone production also follows a circadian rhythm for example melatonin production by the pineal gland peaks during the hours of darkness promoting sleepiness. A03: The problem with circadian rhythms is the individual differences as cycle length research has found that circadian cycles can vary from 13 to 65 hours and other type of individual differences that relates to the cycle onset where individuals appear to be innately different in terms of when their circadian rhythms reach their peak which explains why some people prefer to rise early and go to bed early about 6am and 10am whereas others prefer to wake and go to bed later at 10am and 1pm. However there is evidence for free running circadian rhythms by the french cave explorer Michel siffre who spent 6 months in a cave in Texas with no daylight or clocks or radio and his circadian rhythm settled to just over 24 hours but with some dramatic variations and when he stayed underground at age 60 his circadian rhythm slowed down sometimes stretching for 48 hours which shows that circadian rhythm isn’t wholly dependent on light or social cues and can vary with age. Another study done by Ralph who bred a group of hamster to follow a 20 hour circadian cycle, the SCN cells were removed and transplanted into the brains of rat fœtuses with normal rhythms and once they were born the rats adopted the 20 hours cycle and their brains were then transplanted with SCN cells from a 24 hour cycle of hamsters and within week the cycles adopted a new 24 hour cycle. When the cells from the SCN were removed from the rats the 24 hour cycle of neural activity persisted in the isolated cells. Recent research by Yakazaki found that isolated lungs and livers and other tissues that are grown in the lab still persist in showing circadian rhythms suggesting that cells are capable of maintaining the circadian rhythm even when they’re not under control of any brain structures and are most bodily cells tuned in to following the daily circadian rhythm. A weakness of circadian rhythms is that temperature may be more important than light in setting the body clock as it’s seems that the SCN transforms information about light levels into neural messages that set the body’s temperature. A study by Buhr et al found that fluctuations in body temperature over a 24 hour period can cause the tissue to become active or inactive although the SCN responds to the light circadian fluctuation of body temperature it may actually control other biological rhythms. However results from studies aren’t generalisable for example Ralph’s experiment was performed on hamsters and so the results can’t be applied to humans meaning that we don’t know for certain that people would react the same way which somewhat invalidates the results. There are also methodological flaws in early studies as in most studies the participants are isolated from the variables that might affect their circadian rhythms like clocks, radio and daylight however they’re not isolated from artificial light because it was believed that dim artificial light in contract with daylight wouldn’t affect circadian rhythms as czeisler et al altered participants circadian rhythms down to 22 hours and up to 28 hours by using dim artificial lighting alone which weakens the evidence of earlier studies. Lots of the research carried out into the control of circadian rhythms is criticised for being case studies for example David lafferty and michel siffre have carried out isolation studies in an attempt to investigate the control of circadian rhythms relations to Endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers which is a weakness because the evidence is based on only select few individuals which means it’s population validity is low and there are difficulties generalising the findings to a whole population. Most of the research is criticised for being androcentric for example research by siffre and David lafferty is only looking at the control of circadian rhythms from the male perspective which is a weakness because the findings from the research only tell us about the endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers control of the male circadian rhythms and females are physiologically different to males for example they experience different biological processes like the menstrual cycle and this could be the case for the female sleep/wake cycles which are controlled in different ways by different internal and external processes.

Answer 25

The fight or flight response is a sequence of activity within the body that’s triggered in response to stress enabling us to react quickly to life threatening situations. The stress response is triggered by the amygdala which is an area of the brain which associates sensory inputs such as sights, sounds and smells with emotions like fear and anger and the amygdala sends a distress signal to the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus activates the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). The SNS activates the adrenal medulla causing the adrenal medulla to release adrenaline. Adrenaline causes an increase in heart rate, breathing and blood pressure so more oxygen reaches the heart and muscles and it also triggers the release of glucose into the blood to supply energy but inhibits digestion during an emergency. When the threat has passed the parasympathetic nervous system restores the heart rate and blood pressure to normal and allows digestion to restart. However if the threat is ongoing the HPA axis kicks in. The H in HPA stands for the hypothalamus which releases corticotrophin releasing the hormone CRH into the bloodstream, the P in HPA stands for the pituitary gland which responds to CRH and releases the adrenocorticotrophic hormone ACTH which is transported to the adrenal glands and this stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol. Cortisol reduces the sensitivity to pain and gives a quick burst of energy. There are special receptors in the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland that monitor circulating levels of cortisol releasing CRH and ACTH if the levels rise above the normal bringing cortisol levels to normal. A03: A weakness of the fight or flight explanation is that females show a tend and befriend response rather than fight or flight which involves protecting themselves and their young through nurturing behaviour (tending) and forming protective alliances with other women (befriending) so women’s response has evolved in the context of being a primary caregiver of children. Fleeing at any sign of danger would put the females offspring at risk this finding suggest that previous research which mainly focused on males has obscured patterns of stress response in females. Acute stress can lead to cooperative behaviour in men and women as von dawans et al challenge the classic view that under stress men respond only with fight or flight where women are prone to tend and befriend. This could explain why human connection that happens during times of crisis like the 9/11 terrorist attacks in New York which makes sense as human beings as fundamentally social animals and it’s protective nature of human social relationships allowed our species for thrive. By measuring stress hormones it gives an objective measure of stress so it’s less vague and isn’t guessing it’s accurate which leads to more helpful and accurate results that can be relied on and used for future research. However someone’s first response may be a freeze response instead of fight or flight as gray argues that the first phase of reaction to a threat isn’t to fight or flight but to avoid the confrontation and an initial freeze response essentially a stop look and listen response where an animal is hyper vigilant alert to the slightest sign of danger. An adaptive advantage of response for human are freezing which focuses the attention and makes them look for new information in order to make the best response for a particular threat. But there is a genetic basis to sex differences in the fight or flight response as the SRY gene found that exclusively on the male Y chromosome directs male development promoting aggression and resulting in a fight or flight response and the SRY gene may be the prime males way to respond to stress in by the release of adrenaline and through increased blood flow to the organs involved in fight or flight response in contrast the absence of the SRY gene in females who don’t have a Y chromosome may prevent the response to stress leading instead to tend and befriend behaviours. However some may argue that the fight or flight response is too simple as Gray found that the first phase of a reaction to a stressor isn’t to fight or flight but to avoid the confrontation for example most animals display a freeze response before fight or flight which essentially is the phase in which an animal is hyper vigilant and alert to the slightest sigh of danger which allows them to focus their attention and look for new information before they decide to fight or flight which casts doubts over the fight or flight explanation. The fight or flight response may’ve been a useful survival mechanism for our ancestors who faced genuinely life threatening situations for example from predators but modern day life rarely requires such an intense biological response. The stressors of modern day life that repeatedly activate the fight or flight response can have negative consequences on health for example humans who face a lot of stress and continually activate the sympathetic nervous system who continually increase blood pressure can cause damage to blood vessels and heart disease suggesting that the fight or flight response is a maladaptive response in modern day life. Some people may argue that the fight or flight response may show gender bias in the sense that females may show a tend and befriend rather than a fight or flight response which could be a weakness of the explanation as it shows that the male response is being generalised to both men and women when they have different reactions.

Answer 26

The localisation of function is the belief that specific areas of the brain are associated with specific cognitive processes. The motor cortex is responsible for the generation of voluntary movements. It’s located along the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe and sends nerve impulses to the muscles the right hemisphere controls the left half of the body. The somatosensory cortex is located in the postcentral gurus and processes the sensory information from the skin the information relating to each half of the body is processed in the opposite hemisphere of the brain. Other brain functions include the visual and auditory centres. Visual centres are where nerve impulse from the retina is transmitted via the optic nerve to the thalamus which relays it to the visual cortex in the occipital lobes. The input from the left of the visual field transfers to the visual cortex in the right hemisphere and vice versa. Auditory centres are where nerve impulses from the cochlea travel via the auditory nerve to the brain stem for basic decoding then continue via the thalamus to the auditory cortex where the sound is interpreted. The language cortex is for the Broca’s area and wernickes area. Broca’s area is located in the posterior part of the left frontal lobe near to the motor region which controls the mouth and vocal cords and it’s involved in speech production and is near the auditory cortex and is involved with speech comprehension. A03: Damage to brocas and wernickes area results in different types of regions. Expressive aphasia aka brocas aphasia is the impaired ability to produce language and in most cases this is caused by brain damage in Broca’s area. Receptive aphasia aka wernickes aphasia is the impaired ability to extract the meaning from spoken or written words and this form of aphasia is usually the result of damage to the wernickes area which demonstrates the important role played by these brain regions in different aspects of language. There is evidence from brain scans for example brain scans conducted by Peterson et am who used brain scans to demonstrate how wernickes area was active during a listening task and Broca’s area was active during a reading task. This evidence suggests that the areas are distinct and separate as they’re active during different tasks and many neurological functions are localised particularly in relation to langage and memory. Moreover brain scans enable you to see what brain activity is active in what specific parts of the brain which increases the external validity of localisation of the brain as objective scientific evidence that supports it. Case studies are used to support neurological aspect of psychology for example the case study of phineas gage who suffered from an accident which resulted in a mental pole exiting his skull taking most of his brain and left frontal lobe. This case study supports localisation of the brain as damages to the brain resulted in him having a change of behaviour and personality as the area of the brain is responsible for the behaviour as the frontal lobe was damaged. There are individual differences as there is considerable variability in patterns of brain activation when reading with activity in the right temporal lobe as well as in the left frontal, temporal and occipital lobes as harasty et al found that women who have proportionally larger brocas and wernickes areas than men so these anatomical differences may explain the superior language skills that are often found in females. However language production may not be confined to the Broca’s area alone as Dronkers et al re-examined the preserved brain of two Broca’s aphasia patients using a high resolution brain MRI imaging and they showed damaged in other areas besides Broca’s area finding this was significant because lesions to the Broca’s area alone can cause temp tear speech disruption and they don’t usually result in severe disruption of the spoken language as a study suggests that language and cognition are far more complicated than was once thought and involve networks of brain regions rather than being localised to specific areas. These case studies lacks external validity as case studies are a unique one off case/ events and everyone’s brain may differ thus we’re unable to generalise the findings from the study to the wider population. Communication between the brain areas may be important than localisation as Wernicke claimed that although different regions of the brain have different specialist functions they’re interdependent and in order to work they must interact with each other for example a 1892 neurologist Joseph dejerine described a case in which the loss of ability to read which resulted from the damage to connection between the visual cortex and wernickes area suggesting that complex behaviours like reading involve impulses being passed around the brain through a network of neurons. The claim that functions are localised to certain areas of the brain has been criticised as lashley proposed the equipotentiality theory which suggests the basic motor and sensory functions are localised but the higher mental functions are not and it claimed that the intact areas of the cortex could take over the responsibility for specific cognitive functions following brain injury which casts doubt on theories about localisation of functions suggesting that functions aren’t localised to just one region as other regions can take over specific functions following brain injury.

Answer 27

Lateralisation is the idea that the two halves of the brain are functionally different and that each hemisphere has functional specialisations for example the left hemisphere is dominant for language and speech and the right hemispheres specialises on visuomotor tasks. Broca reported that damage in a particular area of the left hemisphere led to language deficits yet the damage to the equivalent area of the right hemisphere didn’t. The two hemispheres are connected by bundles of nerve fibres like the corpus callosum and exchange information meaning that we can talk about things perceived by the right hemisphere for example face recognition. Split brain research is used to treat severe epilepsy and prevent seizures from affecting both halves of the brain and surgeons would sometimes cut the nerve fibres of the corpus callosum. Sperry and gazzaniga research included that if a picture is shown to the left visual field of a split brain patient and this information is processed by the right hemisphere but can’t response verbally as it’s not a language centre. The left hemisphere doesn’t receive information and can’t talk about it despite having a language centre. The findings of sperry and gazzanigas research highlights the number of key differences between two hemispheres. A03: Some findings of early split brain research has been disconfirmed recently as the major claim of split brain research was the damage to the left hemisphere leads to a loss of langue function. There are case studies that demonstrated that wasn’t necessarily the case and one patient aka JW developed the capacity to speak about information presented to the left or right side of the brain which challenges the claim that the right hemisphere is unable to handle even the most rudimentary language. Lateralisation is related to the increased neural processing capacity by using only one hemisphere to engage in a particular task for example language or mathematical ability would leave the other hemisphere free to engage in another function as Rogers et al found in chickens that brain lateralisation is associated with enhanced ability to perform two tasks simultaneously which was finding food and being vigilant for predators and this finding provides some evidence that brain lateralisation enhances brain efficiency in cognitive tasks that demand simultaneous but different use of both hemispheres. There are also individuals with high level mathematical skills that tend to have superior right hemisphere abilities that are likely to be left handed and are more likely to suffer with allergies and other immune system health problems suggesting there is a relationship between brain lateralisation and the immune system. However lateralisation changes with age as lateralised patterns found in younger individuals tend to switch to bilateral patterns in health older adults for example szaflarski et al found that language became more lateralised to the left hemisphere with increasing age in children and adolescents but after the age of 25 lateralisation decreased with each decade of life this may be because using extra processing resources of other hemisphere may compensate for age related declines in function which raises questions about lateralisation like whether everyone has one hemisphere that’s dominant over the other and whether dominance changes with age. But the split brain procedure is rarely carried out nowadays and many of the studies only included a few participants or just one and patients mayve had underlying physical disorders that made split brain procedure necessary or there may have been some intact nerve fibres remaining additionally the results of the studies aren’t always replicated and it may be unwise to draw general conclusions from them. However the research includes using idiographic and nomothetic approaches. Any conclusions drawn from using an idiographic approach are only representative of those individuals who had a confounding physical disorder that made the procedure necessary whereas the nomothetic approach involves establishing laws or generalisations that apply to all people which is difficult to do as split brain research is normally conducted on few patients meaning that we can’t generalise the results to everyone. However the research that’s performed on animals makes it impossible to conclude that the results would be the same for humans as most research into lateralisation is flawed as the split brain procedure is rarely carried out as patients are difficult to come by and the studies only include few participants and often the research takes an idiographic approach and any conclusions drawn are representative only of the individuals who had a confounding physical disorder which made the procedure necessary so problematic results can’t be generalised to the wider population. Split brain research shows lateralised brain functions where the left hemisphere is analytical and verbal and right is adept at spatial tasks and music. The right hemisphere only produces basic words and phrases but contributes emotional content to language and recent research suggests the distinction may be too simplified and several tasks that are associated with one hemisphere can be carried out by the other.

Answer 28

Brain plasticity is the brains ability to modify it’s own structure creating new neural pathways and pruning away weak connections as a result of experience for example playing video games results in synaptic connections in brain areas involved in spatial recognition, strategic planning, working memory and motor performance. The gradual decline in cognitive function with age even 60 year olds have brain plasticity and can increase their grey matter in the visual cortex when taught new skills like jogging. Davison et al found experienced meditators like Tibetan monks produced more gamma brainwaves than student volunteers indicating that meditation causes permanent changes. Functional recovery is the recovery of abilities and mental processes that have been compromised as a result of trauma. When the brain cells are damaged as they are during a stroke other parts sometimes take over their functions. It can happen by neural unmasking in which dormant synapses can be reactivated when they receive more neural input than previously. Stem cells implanted into the brain may help to treat brain damage by directly replacing the damaged cells and stem cells secret growth factors that rescue injured cells or they form a neural network linking uninjured areas with a damaged brain region. A03: There is an age differences in functional recovery although the commonly accepted view is that functional plasticity reduces with age and adults with brain trauma require social support or must develop strategies to deal with cognitive deficits there are studies that suggested even abilities commonly thought to be fixed in childhood can still be modified in adults with intense retraining, the capacity for neural reorganisation is still much greater in children than adults as demonstrated by extended practice that adults require in order to produce changes. In rats the enriched environment increases the number of neurons in the brain as kempermann et al found that rats housed in complex environments developed more neurons than rats housed in lab cages which shows an increase in neurons in the hippocampus which is associated with the formation of new memories and the ability to navigate showing clear evidence of the brains ability to change as a result of the experience ie it demonstrates plasticity. There’s other research from a study of taxi drivers as maguire et al discovered changes in the brain could be detected as a result of taxi drivers extensive experience of spatial navigation and MRI scans showed the posterior hippocampi taxi drivers is significantly larger than those of the control participants. The posterior hippocampal volume was positively correlated with the amount of time they’d spent as a taxi driver showing the highest levels of plasticity were evident in those with more extensive experience. The educational attainment and functional recovery was found in a retrospective study by Schneider et al who examined the data on traumatic brain injuries from the US traumatic brain injuries database. It showed nearly 40% of patients with a college level education achieved a disability free recovery after a year compared to less than 10% of patients who left school early. The researchers concluded that the cognitive reserve (associated with greater educational attainment) was an important factor in neural adaption during recovery from a traumatic brain injury. There is research to support the claim for functional recovery as Taijiri et al found that stem cells provided to rats after brain trauma showed a clear development of neuron like cells in the area of injury which demonstrates the ability of the brain to create new connections using neurons manufactured by stem cells. There is a real life application when examining plasticity and functional recovery which is the application of findings to the field of neurorehabilitation. By understanding the processes of plasticity and functional recovery which led to the development of neurhabilitation which uses motor therapy and electrical stimulation of the brain to counter negative effects and deficits in motor and cognitive functions following accidents, injuries and/or strokes. It demonstrates the positive application of research in this area to help improve cognitive functions of people suffering from injuries. Other research comes from bezzola et al who demonstrated that 40 hours of gold training produced changes in neural represrantion of movement in participants aged 40 to 60 using FMRI, the researchers observed reduced motor cortex activity in the novice golfers compared to a control group suggesting more efficient neural representations after training which suggests that neural plasticity continues throughout a persons lifespan.

Answer 29

Ultradian rhythms are curled laying less than 24 hours like sleep stages. Sleep involves repeating a cycle of 90 to 100 minutes of sleep with 5 stages including REM (rapid eye movement) sleep and each sleep stage show a characteristic for the EEG pattern. During deep sleep our brainwaves slow and breathing and heart rate decrease and during REM sleep the EEG pattern resembles waking brainwaves and dreams occur and the 90 minutes rhythm continues during the day as a basic rest activity cycle (BRAC) BRAC involves periods of alertness alternating with period of physiological fatigue and low concentration. Discovering rhythm of sleep is Hans Berger who developed EEG and this records electrical activity in the brain. With infradian rhythms the cycles with a duration longer than 24 hours for example the female menstrual cycle and this can vary between 23 and 36 days but the average is 28 days. It’s regulated by hormones and ovulation takes place roughly half way through the cycle. It may be weekly that infradian rhythms with changes in hormone levels and blood pressure at weekends. Annual rhythms are seen in seasonal variations in mood, increased rates of heart attacks in the winter and the peak of deaths in January. Dement and kleitman used EEG to identify systematic changes in brain waves that occur at regular intervals during sleep. The procedure was 9 male participants spent up to 61 nights in a lab and found two distinct kinds of sleep: REM sleep and NREM sleep (no rapid eye movements). They found that sleep is an active state made of a number of different identifiable stages and the average time spent in one ultradian cycle (one complete NREM and REM cycle) was approximately 90 minutes. When they woke participants during REM 79% of the one on average the dream was reported (7% reported that dreaming when woken from NREM). They concluded that ultradian cycles of sleep made up of alternative cycles of NREM/REM sleep with the latter being associated with dreaming. A key study on infradian rhythms was conducted by Reinberg who aimed to investigate the influence of light on biological rhythms. Reinberg studied young women who spent 3 months in a cave relying only on dim light from a miners lamp so there was no external light source. The effects on the sleep/wake cycle and infradian cycles of menstruation was noted. As in siffres study a woman’s day lengthened to 24.6 hours and the menstrual cycle shortened to 25.7 days and took over 12 months before the menstrual cycle returned to normal. The lack of light as a zeitgeber resulted in changes to both the circadian rhythm of the sleep/wake cycle and to the infradian rhythm of menstruation which was slow to adapt to the previous pattern even when the light was restored. A03: There are individual differences in sleep patterns which may be genetic in origin as Tucker et al studies participants over 11 days and nights in their sleep in a lab. They assessed sleep duration so the time it took to fall asleep and the amount of time in each sleep stage. They found large consistent individual differences in each of these characteristics for deep sleep (stages 3 and 4) individual differences particularly significant which meant that differences between individuals may not be caused just partially biologically determined. There is research support for BRAC in elite performers as Ericsson et al found that elite violinists generally practise for no more than 90 minutes at a a time for several times a day and the violinists frequently napped to recover from practice with every violinists napping more than their teachers so consistent predictions of BRAC meant that Ericsson discovered some pattern among other musicians, athletes, chess players and writers. The research into ultradian rhythms is praised for being conducted in controlled lab settings for example the research looking at stages of sleep uses EEG and ERP mechanisms to measure waves occurring in the brain which is a strength because the research from dement and kleitman, rechtschaffen and kales is seen to produce scientific and objective measures that allow the research to draw firm conclusions about specific characteristics associated with different stages of sleep for example brain activity, muscle activity, eye activity which increases the internal validity. Most of the research however is based on field experimental methods and therefore there is a lack of control over extraneous variables for example researchers like McClintock was unable to control other external factors that could affect the female menstrual cycle for example stress, exercise/physical activity which is a weakness because the lack of control over such variables makes it difficult for researchers to confirm the cause and effect relationship between the presence of pheromones and the lengthening/shortening of the female menstrual cycle. The menstrual cycle influences a women’s mate choice as women’s generally prefer slightly feminised faces representing kindness and cooperation when picking a partner for a lot term relationship and around ovulation women have showed preference for more masculine faces representing good genes for short term liaisons with more likelihood of conception showing that hormonally controlled rhythm may also impact behaviour. Due to research being conducted in a control setting of a lab sleep environment can be criticised for it’s artificial nature for example sleep research involves individuals sleeping under circumstances don’t usually reflect a ‘typical’ nights sleep. During experiments participants sleep with electrodes attached to the body/head and are often woken up a number of times throughout the night in order to repeat the dreams , they’re sleeping in a lab setting and not their usual bedroom setting which is a weakness because the research is criticised for lacking ecological validity and not reflecting the individuals true sleep behaviour. Most of the research looking at ultradian sleep cycle is criticised for being androcentric for example Derment et kleitman use a male sample for most of the research into investigating ultradian rhythms. This is a weakness because the findings from the research only tells us sleep stage patterns of males. Females are physiologically different to males (they experience difference biological process like the menstrual cycle) and this could be the case for female sleep patterns/cycles and could be very different for example they could experience more/less slow wave/REM sleep compared to males. The menstrual cycle however is affected by exogenous cues so when several women of childbearing age live together and don’t take oral contraceptives menstrual cycles tend to synchronise as Russell et al applied daily samples of sweat from one group of women onto the upper lips of women in a separate group and the menstrual cycles became synchronised. Suggesting that women’s menstrual cycle can be affected by pheromones from other women as well as they’re own pituitary hormones.

Answer 30

Biological rhythms are regulated by endogenous pacemakers which are the body’s internal biological clocks and exogenous zeitgebers which are external cues including light which help to regulate the internal biological clocks. Endogenous pacemakers are the internal biological clocks in the brain the SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus) in the hypothalamus acts as a master clock controlling the other pacemakers in the body. It receives information about light levels via the optic nerve which keeps the SCN circadian rhythm synchronised with daylight. The SCN sends signals to the pineal gland which produces the hormone melatonin at night. Melatonin inhibits the brain mechanisms that promote wakefulness and so induces sleep. The neurons in where SCN spontaneously synchronise with other brain regions controlling sleep and arousal with peripheral pacemakers and with the pineal gland. Exegenous zeitgebers are an environmental event which affects the biological clock. The light resets the biological clock each day keeping it on a 24 hour cycle. The specialised light detecting cells in the retina contain melanopsin. They gauge the brightness and send signals to the SCN to set the daily clock. This system works in most blind people too even in the absence of rods and comes or visual perception as we’re influence by social cues for example mealtimes and bedtimes from the activity of the people around us. A03: However artificial light at night can disrupt the circadian rhythm as touitou et al showed that teenagers spend an increasing amount of time on electric media at night. The LED bulbs of these devices are enriched with blue light. This leads to suppression of melatonin secretion and circadian disruption which results in adolescent sleep that becomes irregular, shortened and delayed. In the long run sleep deprivation can lead to increased rates of cardiovascular disorders and mood disorders like depression. The role of SCN as endogenous pacemakers was shown in hamsters as Morgan bred hamsters with abnormally short circadian rhythms with 20 hours and transplanted some of their SCN neurons into normal hamsters which displayed abnormal rhythms too. Further confirmation came in a reverse experiment when the SCN neurons from normal hamsters when transplanted into abnormal hamsters and they changed to normal a 24 hour circadian pattern which supports the importance of SCN in regulating the 24 hour circadian rhythm. There is support for the important role by melanospin in setting the circadian rhythm is demonstrated in studies of blind people who lack any visual perception as Skene and Arendt estimate that most blind people who still have some light perception have normally entrained circadian rhythms. People without light perception show abnormal circadian entertainment suggesting that when the pathway from retina cells containing melanospin to the SCN is still intact and light can still act as exogenous zeitgeber. Despite all the research support for the role of endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers the argument could be considered biologically reductionist for example the behaviourist approach suggests that bodily rhythms influenced by other people and social norms ie sleep occurs when it’s dark because that’s the social norm and wouldn’t be socially acceptable for a person to conduct daily routines during the night. The research discussed is criticised for being reductionist as it only considers singular biological mechanism and fails to consider the other widely divergent viewpoints. However Morgan’s research is flawed because of the use of hamsters as humans would respond differently to manipulations of biological rhythms, not only because we’re different biologically, but because of the vast difference between environmental contexts which makes the research on animals unable to explain the role of endogenous pacemakers in biological processes of humans. But light exposure is used to avoid jet lag as burgess et al showed exposed volunteers to light treatments in order to shift their sleep wake cycles. Participants sleep patterns and melatonin levels were monitored in a lab and participants who had been exposed to bright light felt sleepy two hours earlier in the evening and woke two hours earlier in the morning showing that circadian rhythms can be shifted by light exposure which is useful for air travellers. Rencontre parts of animal brain regions is considered unethical and results gained from this is not generalisable to humans so not worth the procedure as we can’t base findings of an animal study to humans as we are biologically different and therefore would not act the same as hamsters for example. There is further research support for the role of exogenous zeitgebers. When siffre returned from his underground stay with no clocks or light he believed the day to be a month earlier than it was suggesting that his 24 hour sleep wake cycle was increased by the lack of external cues, making him believe one day was longer than it was which highlights the impact of external factors on bodily rhythms.

Answer 31

The interactionist approach acknowledges that the biological, psychological and societal factors in the development of schizophrenia. The biological approach that explains schizophrenia is genetic vulnerability and neurochemical and neurological abnormality. Meehls model believes that diathesis is entirely genetic and the result is a single schizogene. It has led to the development of a biologically based schizotypic personality one characteristic is sensitivity to stress as according to Meehl if a person doesn’t have a schizogene then no amount of stress would lead to developing schizophrenia. However in carriers of the gene chronic stress through childhood and adolescence particular a schizophrenic mother could result in schizophrenia. Explaining schizophrenia through a psychological explanation is the stress resulting from life events and daily hassles including poor quality interactions in the family. The diathesis stress model involves having a genetic vulnerability to schizophrenia and it’s a stress trigger that’s necessary to develop schizophrenia. One or more underlying factors make a person vulnerable to developing schizophrenia but an onset of the condition is triggered by stress. The approach acknowledges that both biological and psychological factors and is compatible with both type of treatment. The model combines antipsychotics with psychological therapies like CBT. The standard practice in the UK is to combine the two and it’s unusual to treat schizophrenia using the psychological therapies alone. A03: However the original diathesis stress model is over simplified as the idea that a single schizophrenia and schizophrenic parenting style is a major source of stress is too simple. As multiple genes increase the vulnerability and not a single gene. Additionally stress also comes in many forms not just dysfunctional parenting as it’s not believed that vulnerability can be caused by early trauma as well as genetic makeup and stress can come in many forms including biological. A study by Houston concluded that childhood sexual trauma emerged as a vulnerability factors whilst cannabis was the trigger showing that an old idea of diathesis as biological and stress as psychological is too simple which is a problem for an old idea of diathesis stress but not for newer models. However the diathesis stress is holistic as it identifies patients that have different triggers like genes etc and patients can receive different treatments for their schizophrenia which will be more effective. There is evidence for the role of vulnerability and triggers as tienari investigated the combination of genetic vulnerability and parenting style (trigger). The children adopted from 19,000 Finnish mothers with schizophrenia between 1960 and 1979 followed up with the adoptive parents and assessed them for child rearing styles and rates of schizophrenia compared to those with control group is adoptees without any genetic risk. The child rearing style of high levels and criticism and conflict and low levels of empathy implicated in the development of schizophrenia but only for children with high genetic risk but not in a control group suggesting that both genetic vulnerability and family stress is important in the development of schizophrenia and genetically vulnerable children are more sensitive in parenting behaviour. There is strong evidence to suggest some sort of underlying vulnerability coupled with stress that can lead to schizophrenia and also have well informed suggestions for how vulnerabilities and stress might lead to symptoms. However we don’t yet fully understand the mechanisms by which symptoms of schizophrenia appear and how vulnerability and stress produce them. There is also support for combinations of treatments as Tarrier had 315 patients randomly allocated to medication and CBT group or a medication and supportive group or a counselling group or control group. The patients in two combination groups showed lower symptom levels than the control group although there was no difference in the rates of hospital readmission so this and other studies show a clear advantage to adopting the interactionist approach for treatment of schizophrenia. There are negative effects however when treating schizophrenia as the combined treatments can have negative effects for example patients doing CBT and drug therapy may see side effects of their drugs in a delusional manner as it increases mistrust and decreases the likelihood of patients complying to medication regime which decreases the effectiveness. Turkington et al argue there’s a logical fit between the interactionist approach and the combination of treatments. However the facet that combined treatments are more effective then either on their own doesn’t necessarily mean the interactionist approach to schizophrenia is correct which is the error of logic called treatment-causation fallacy. The treatment is considered value for money as it’s initially more expensive but more effective as it outweighs costs and a patient isn’t likely to need treatment in the future and it’s cost effective in the long term so for patients this is much more beneficial for them.

Answer 32

The reliability in the diagnosis of schizophrenia is that for the classification system to be reliable, different clinicians using the same system for example the DSN should arrive at the same diagnosis for the same individual so reliability is potentially a problem for the diagnosis of schizophrenia. The diagnosis of schizophrenia is difficult as the practitioner has no physical signs but only symptoms of what the patients report to make a decision on. Inter rater reliability is measured by a statistic called a kappa score. A score of one indicated perfect inter rater agreement but a score of zero indicates zero agreement. A kappa score of 0.7 or above is generally considered good. In the DSM-V field trials the diagnosis of schizophrenia had a kappa score of only 0.46. The reason there might be gender bias in the diagnosis of schizophrenia which affects the validity of the diagnosis is because some behaviour which is regarded as psychotic in males wasn’t regarded as psychotic in females. What we mean by validity in the diagnosis of schizophrenia is that for the classification system to be valid it should be meaningful and classify a real pattern of symptoms which result from the underlying cause. A03: But there are problems of validity as the question is are we really testing what we think we’re testing. In the US only 20% of psychiatric patients were closed as having schizophrenia in the 1930s but this rose to 80% in the 1950s whereas in London the rate remained at 20% suggesting that neither group had a valid definition of schizophrenia. The evidence we do have has a problem of reliability in the diagnosis of schizophrenia as jakobsen et al tested the reliability of the ICD-10 classification system in diagnosing schizophrenia. A 100 danish patients with a history of psychosis were assessed using operational criteria and a concordance rate of 98% obtained which demonstrate a high reliability of clinical diagnosis of schizophrenia using the up to date classification. Support for the test retest reliability of diagnosis of schizophrenia was conducted by Prescott et al who analysed the test-retest reliability of several mesures of attention and information processing in 14 of the schizophrenic patients. They found that performance on these measures were stable over a six month period suggesting that cognitive symptoms relatively consistent over time, and may be easier to treat, compared to other symptoms for example hallucinations which may be less stable. There is evidence that symptom overlap is a problem in the diagnosis of schizophrenia comorbidity which describes people who suffer from two or more mental disorders for example schizophrenia and depression are often found together which makes it more difficult to confidently diagnose schizophrenia. Comorbidity occurs because symptoms of different disorders overlap for example major depression and schizophrenia both involve very low levels of motivation which creates problems of reliability which leaves us with the question does low motivation reflect depression or schizophrenia or both? There is also the issue of low validity in the diagnosis as Rosenhan conducted a famous experiment involving pseudopatients that led to 8 normal people being kept in hospital despite behaving normally. Suggesting that doctors had no valid method for detecting schizophrenia. They assumed bogus patients were schizophrenic with no real evidence. In a follow up study they rejected the genuine patients whom they assumed were part of the deception. Another issue concerns gender bias as there is evidence that gender bias is a problem in the diagnosis of schizophrenia as loring and Powell found some behaviour which they regarded as psychotic in males that wasn’t regarded as psychotic in females. Winter found that women are more likely to be classed as mentally ill than men. This could be because psychiatrists who are predominantly male may be biased against if insufficiently sensitive to female clients but either way it shows how unreliable and invalid the diagnostic tools are when identifying schizophrenia. There is also evidence that cultural bias is a problem in the diagnosis or schizophrenia. The biggest controversies in relation to the classification and diagnosis is to do with cultural relativism and variations in the diagnosis for example in some Asian countries people aren’t expected to show emotional expressions whereas in certain Arabic cultures public emotion is encouraged and understood so without this knowledge a person displaying overt emotional behaviour in western culture might be regarded as abnormal. Cochrane reported an incidence of schizophrenia in the West Indies and the UK which is 1% but people of Afro Caribbean origin are 7 times more like to be diagnosed as schizophrenia when living in the UK. The classification for schizophrenia is criticised for having low validity as many symptoms can be found in other disorders for example bipolar disorders. Ellason and Ross found that people with dissociative identity disorder have more schizophrenic symptoms than those diagnosed as schizophrenic so it questions whether schizophrenia is a discrete disorder that should have it’s own classification but some argue that it doesn’t need one.

Answer 33

Family dysfunction if the forms of abnormal process’s within the family like conflict, communication problems, cold parenting, criticism, control and high levels of expressed emotions. Bateson et al suggested the double bind theory which suggests that children who frequently receive contradictory messages from their parents are likely to develop to schizophrenia for example parents who say they care whilst appearing critical or parents who express love whilst appearing angry. They didn’t believe that schizophrenia was a disease they belied that schizophrenia was a result of social pressures from life interactions that prevent the development of internally coherent construction of reality and in the long run it would manifest itself as schizophrenic symptoms. Expressed emotions is the family variable associated with schizophrenia, where emotionally negative climate and a high degree of expressed emotions such as criticisms or hostile leads to 4 times higher likelihood of a relapse for returning patients as found by linszen et al. The psychodynamic approach by Freud suggested that schizophrenia was a result of two processes; regression to the pre ego state and attempts to reestablish the ego control it may have happened if the schizophrenics world was harsh for example the parents were unloving which would have lead to the individual to regress to the stage before ego development and development of the realistic awareness of the world. schizophrenia in an individual indicates an infantile state, with some symptoms reflecting a primitive state like delusions of grandir and others reflecting attempts to reestablish ego control for example auditory hallucinations. The cognitive approach takes into account biological factors which claims that the cause of initial sensory experiences of schizophrenia and additional features of schizophrenia appear when the individual attempts to explain these experiences. When an individual first encounters these symptoms they turn to others to validate what they experienced, however this ultimately fails which causes the schizophrenic to believe that others are hiding the truth and start to develop delusional beliefs like paranoia. Stressful life events have been associated with a higher risk of schizophrenia, like the death of a loved one or a relationship breakups as brown and birley demonstrate this is found prior to a schizophrenic episode and schizophrenics have reported twice as many life events compared to healthy controls however mechanisms through which stress factors trigger schizophrenic episodes are unknown. A03: There are individual differences to consider as EE (expressed emotion) is associated with relapse but not all patients who live in high EE families relatives and not all patients in low EE families avoid relapse so family dysfunction is an incomplete explanation for schizophrenia. The strength of the double bind explanation comes from empirical support by Berger who found that schizophrenics reported a higher recall of double bind statements by mothers than non schizophrenics, but this evidence may not be reliable as the patients recall may be affected by schizophrenia suggesting that a wider academic credibility for the idea of contradictory messages causing schizophrenia. There is a psychodynamic model from the psychodynamic assumption that disordered family patterns are the cause of schizophrenia. Fromm-Reichmann described ‘’ schizophrenogenic mothers’’ / families that are over protective, dominating and rejecting, so important contributory influences in the development of schizophrenia studies have shown that parents of schizophrenia patients act differently compared to the parents of other patients which may be the consequence of the child’s problems rather than the cause. There is a challenge to the role of life events as Van Os et al found that patients weren’t more likely to have a major stressful event in three months prior to the onset of the illness in a prospective party of the study those participants who had experienced a major life event went on to have a decreased likelihood of a relapse suggests that it’s difficult to draw a causal relationship between life events and schizophrenia. There are practical applications from the research for EE for example Hogarty produced a type of therapy session, which reduced social conflicts between parents and children which reduced EE and relapse rates. This suggests gaining an insight into the family relationships allows psychiatric professionals to help improve the quality of patients lives. There is also a cognitive explanation as Meyer Lindenberg et al provides a physiological supports for cognitive explanation that found a link between excess dopamine levels in the pre frontal cortex and working memory, suggesting that cognitive defects are associated with schizophrenia research has implications with the treatment of schizophrenia. Yellowlees et am have developed a machine that produces virtual hallucinations, for example hearing the TV telling you to kick yourself, the intention is so that schizophrenics are able to see their hallucinations aren’t real. However the double bind theory has ethical issues as there are serious ethical concerns in blaming the family, particularly as there’s little evidence upon which to base this. Gender bias is also another issues as the mother tends to be blamed most, which means that such research is highly socially sensitive suggesting that research therefore doesn’t protect the individuals from harm. The family relationships play an important part in the development of schizophrenia as Tienari et al supports the importance of family relationships in the development of schizophrenia who found that adopted children who had schizophrenic biological parents were more likely to develop schizophrenia than with non schizophrenic biological parents so the difference is that it only emerged in situations where the adopted family were rated as disturbed which suggests that illness only manifests itself under appropriate family circumstances/conditions.

Answer 34

The biological explanation for schizophrenia is the dominant one and has received the greatest empirical support. The approach sees mental disorders as having physical causes; the number of biological explanations for schizophrenia has emerged being genetic vulnerability, the role of the neurotransmitter dopamine and neural correlations. The biological approach offers useful suggestions as to how schizophrenia is caused and it’s been proposed there’s a genetic component to schizophrenia which predisposes some individuals to the illness. A genetic explanation suggests whether a person develops schizophrenia is partly due to their genes which may explain why patients often have family members with schizophrenia. Family studies have found that individuals who have schizophrenia and determine whether biological relatives are similarly affected more than non biological relatives. A large study conducted by Gottesman concluded that if both parents suffer from schizophrenia than there’s a 46% chance of also developing the disorder compared to a 1% chance for the general population. The findings show a greater degree of a genetic relatedness greater risk of developing the schizophrenia genetics only partly responsible, otherwise the identical twins would have a 100% concordance rates. The dopamine hypothesis involves an excess of dopamine that’s implicated in the symptoms of schizophrenia as dopamine is a substance that’s known to be an active in the limbic system which is an area of the brain governing emotion. Dopamine neurons are instrumental in regulating attentons and therefore if the process is disturbed it may lead to problems with attention, perception and thought which are all characteristics in schizophrenia. The theory claimed that excessive amounts of dopamine or oversensitivity of the brain to dopamine is the cause of schizophrenia. The dopamine hypothesis states that messages from neurons that transmit dopamine fire too easily or too often leading to the characteristic symptoms of schizophrenia. Schizophrenics are thought to have abnormally high numbers of D2 receptors on receiving neurons resulting in more dopamine binding and therefore more neurons firing. Neural correlates are measurements of structure/function of the brain occur in conjunction with experience for example schizophrenia as there is evidence that schizophrenia is down to structural abnormalities in the brain. Brain scanning techniques make it possible to investigate living brain images as positive and negative symptoms correlates. The neural correlates of negatives symptoms as activity in the ventral striatum has been linked to the development of avolition which is the loss of motivation and the ventral striatum is believed to be involved in the anticipation of reward for certain actions. If the abnormality in areas like the ventral striatum than it would result in the lack of motivation being avolition. The reduced activity in the superior temporal gyrus and anterior cingulate gryus has been linked to the development of auditory hallucinations and patients experiencing auditory hallucinations showed lower activation levels in these areas than controls. Reduced activity in areas of the brain is a neural correlate of auditory hallucinations as people with schizophrenia have abnormally large ventricles in the brain ventricles are fluid filled cavities meaning that the brains of schizophrenics are lighter than normal. A03: However cause and effect can’t be established as the dopamine hypothesis raises a problem where it’s uncertian whether dopamine levels are the cause of schizophrenia, or is the raised dopamine level the result of schizophrenia and it’s not clear which comes first. This suggests that we need to be careful when establishing cause and effect relationships in schizophrenic patients. There is research into enlarged ventricles and neurotransmitter levels have high reliability because the research is carried out in highly controlled environments, which has specialist, high tech equipment like MRI and PET scans. These machines take accurate readings of brain regions like the frontal lobe and the pre frontal cortex, basil ganglia, hippocampus and the amygdale. This suggests that the research tested and re tested means the same results would be achieved. There is evidence from the brain structure explanation from empirical support from suddath et al. They used MRI to obtain pictures of the brain structure of monozygotic twins in which one twin is schizophrenic. The twin had enlarged ventricles and a reduced anterior hypothalamus so because it was large, the schizophrenic twins could be easily identified from brain images in 12/15 pairs. This suggests the academic credibility for enlarged ventricles determines the likelihood of the schizophrenia developing. However Noll argues that around one third of patients don’t respond to drugs which block dopamine so other transmitters may be involved. There are methodological problem am with the genetic explanation as family, twin and adoption studies must be consider cautiously because they’re retrospective, and the diagnosis may be biased by the knowledge that other family members who may have been diagnosed suggesting that there may be problems of demand characteristics. There is also the problem of the nature nurture debate as is difficult to separate out the influence of nature versus nurture. The fact that concordance rates aren’t 100% means that schizophrenia can’t be explained by genes and it could be that an individual has a predisposition to schizophrenia and it simply makes an individual more at risk of developing the disorder, suggesting that the biological account can’t give a full explanation of the disorder. The biological explanations are reductionist as they’re attempting to explain complex a multi faceted disorder at a level of cells, genes and chemicals and the genome project has an increased understanding of the complexity of the gene,a lower number of genes exist than anticipated and it’s now recognised that genes have multiple functions and many genes are responsible for behaviour. Schizophrenia- multi- factorial trait is the result of multiple genes and environmental factors. The research the gene is mapping the oversimplistic schizophrenia and not due to a single gene. The genetic theory is seen as deterministic just because we’re predisposed by genes that can’t mean we necessarily get the disorder schizophrenia. Many researchers now accept that schizophrenia concordance rates in families may be more to do with common rearing patterns or other environmental factors that is nothing to do with hereditary.

Answer 35

The biological explanation for schizophrenia is the dominant one and has received the greatest empirical support. The approach sees mental disorders as having physical causes; the number of biological explanations for schizophrenia has emerged being genetic vulnerability, the role of the neurotransmitter dopamine and neural correlations. The biological approach offers useful suggestions as to how schizophrenia is caused and it’s been proposed there’s a genetic component to schizophrenia which predisposes some individuals to the illness. A genetic explanation suggests whether a person develops schizophrenia is partly due to their genes which may explain why patients often have family members with schizophrenia. Family studies have found that individuals who have schizophrenia and determine whether biological relatives are similarly affected more than non biological relatives. A large study conducted by Gottesman concluded that if both parents suffer from schizophrenia than there’s a 46% chance of also developing the disorder compared to a 1% chance for the general population. The findings show a greater degree of a genetic relatedness greater risk of developing the schizophrenia genetics only partly responsible, otherwise the identical twins would have a 100% concordance rates. There are genetic factors as twin studies investigate the relative contributions of genes and the environment in the development of schizophrenia because if it’s purely genetic influences then a 100% concordance rate with monozygotic twins is expected and a 50% with dizygotic twins. The genetic effect is demonstrated by Joseph who conducted a meta analysis of twin studies and found a 44% concordance for monozygotic and 7.4% for dizygotic. There have been family studies that investigate the heritability of schizophrenia, where studies have found a closer degree of relatedness linked to a higher risk of developing schizophrenia; children to schizophrenic parents then they’re 46% more likely to develop schizophrenia as found by Gottesman. But with family studies it’s difficult to disentangle environmental and genetic influences which can be distinguished using adoption studies. Heritability effects are still present in those adopted by non schizophrenic parents and had biological parents suggesting a genetic influence. The dopamine hypothesis involves an excess of dopamine that’s implicated in the symptoms of schizophrenia as dopamine is a substance that’s known to be an active in the limbic system which is an area of the brain governing emotion. Dopamine neurons are instrumental in regulating attentons and therefore if the process is disturbed it may lead to problems with attention, perception and thought which are all characteristics in schizophrenia. The theory claimed that excessive amounts of dopamine or oversensitivity of the brain to dopamine is the cause of schizophrenia. The dopamine hypothesis states that messages from neurons that transmit dopamine fire too easily or too often leading to the characteristic symptoms of schizophrenia. Schizophrenics are thought to have abnormally high numbers of D2 receptors on receiving neurons resulting in more dopamine binding and therefore more neurons firing. Drugs demonstrates the influence dopamine as amphetamines which are dopamine agonists stimulate the nerve cells containing dopamine flooding the synapse. High levels of dopamine lead to schizophrenic symptoms like hallucinations and delusions. Antipsychotics, dopamine antagonists reduce the stimulation of the dopamine system which leads to the elimination of symptoms for example hallucinations, strengthening the case for dopamine being a significant factor to schizophrenia and low dopamine levels are present in sufferers of Parkinson’s disease. Those people take L.Dopa which raises the dislike levels that start to display schizophrenic symptoms. A03: However cause and effect can’t be established as the dopamine hypothesis raises a problem where it’s uncertian whether dopamine levels are the cause of schizophrenia, or is the raised dopamine level the result of schizophrenia and it’s not clear which comes first. This suggests that we need to be careful when establishing cause and effect relationships in schizophrenic patients. There is a genetic influence on adoption studies which support the explanation that schizophrenia may be inherited and influenced by genes as Tienari el al found that 6.7% of adoptees whose mothers were schizophrenic also received a diagnosis of schizophrenia, compared to 2% of controls they concluded that genetic liability has been decisively confirmed. With the dopamine hypothesis there are drugs called antipsychotic drugs that reduce dopamine activity and help improve the severity of the symptoms. But Noll argues that around one third of patients don’t respond to drugs which block dopamine so other neurotransmitters may be involved. There are methodological problem am with the genetic explanation as family, twin and adoption studies must be consider cautiously because they’re retrospective, and the diagnosis may be biased by the knowledge that other family members who may have been diagnosed suggesting that there may be problems of demand characteristics. There is also the problem of the nature nurture debate as is difficult to separate out the influence of nature versus nurture. The fact that concordance rates aren’t 100% means that schizophrenia can’t be explained by genes and it could be that an individual has a predisposition to schizophrenia and it simply makes an individual more at risk of developing the disorder, suggesting that the biological account can’t give a full explanation of the disorder. The biological explanations are reductionist as they’re attempting to explain complex a multi faceted disorder at a level of cells, genes and chemicals and the genome project has an increased understanding of the complexity of the gene,a lower number of genes exist than anticipated and it’s now recognised that genes have multiple functions and many genes are responsible for behaviour. Schizophrenia- multi- factorial trait is the result of multiple genes and environmental factors. The research the gene is mapping the oversimplistic schizophrenia and not due to a single gene. The genetic theory is seen as deterministic just because we’re predisposed by genes that can’t mean we necessarily get the disorder schizophrenia. Many researchers now accept that schizophrenia concordance rates in families may be more to do with common rearing patterns or other environmental factors that is nothing to do with hereditary.

Answer 36

Family relationships are very important when it comes to schizophrenia as biological processes are important in the origins and symptoms of schizophrenia and the psychological processes are also important as the impact of family relationships has been put forward as a possible explanation for schizophrenia. Psychologists have attempted to link schizophrenia to childhood and adulthood experiences of living in a dysfunctional family. Dysfunctional refers to forms of abnormal processes within the family like conflict, communication problems, cold parenting, criticism, control and high levels of expressed emotions which may be risk factors for the development and the maintenance of schizophrenia. Double bind theory is contradictory information termed double bind it means when children are being punished for doing what they’re told for example giving a hug and then being pushed always and being punished again when the parent gives no reason for pushing them away. The theory suggests that children will become confused and lose their grip on reality. The negative symptoms of social withdrawal and flat affect may be an appropriate and logical response to double bond situations as Bateson et al suggested that the double bind theory where children who frequently receive contradictory messages from parents are likely to develop schizophrenia for example parents who say they care whilst appearing critical/ parents who express love whilst appearing angry. They didn’t believe that schizophrenia was a disease they believed that schizophrenia was a result of social pressures from life. High EE (expressed emotion) is a family communication style that involves; critical comments through both tone and context occasionally accompanied by violence, hostility towards the patient including anger and rejection, emotional over involvement in the life of the patient including the needless self sacrifice and if these factors are high then the risk of relapse is high. A03: There are individual differences as EE is associated with relapse but not all patients who live in high EE families relapse and not all patients in low EE families avoid relapse so family dysfunction is an incomplete explanation for schizophrenia. Strength of the double bind explanation comes from empirical support is provided by Berger who found that schizophrenics reported a higher recall of double bind statements by mothers than non schizophrenics, this evidence may not be reliable as the patients recall may be affected by schizophrenia, suggesting a wider academic credibility for the idea of contradictory messages causing schizophrenia. Other supporting evidence for EE families where communications are commonly to do with criticism, hostility and disapproval are said to have high EE comes from Brown where people recovering from schizophrenia and were discharged from the hospital and followed up over a nine month period and interviews with the family members were conducted to determine the levels of expressed emotion. With family relationships there’s a problem of cause and effect as mischler and waxler found significant differences in the wsh mother’s spoke to their schizophrenic daughters compared to normal daughters which suggests that dysfunctional communication may be the result of living with a schizophrenic rather than the cause of the disorder suggesting a problem relation to EE causing schizophrenia. There are practical applications with the research with EE for example Hogarty produced a type of therapy session, which reduced social conflicts between parents and children which reduced EE and relapse rates. This suggests gaining an insight into family relationships allows psychiatric professionals to help improve the quality of the patients lives. There is a weak evidence for family based explanations as information about childhood experiences is gathered after the symptoms have developed, therefore schizophrenia may have distorted the patients recall of childhood experiences which creates serious problems of validity. The double bind theory also has ethical issues as there are serious ethical concerns in blaming the family, particularly as there’s little evidence upon which to base this. Gender bias is also an issue as the mother tends to be blamed the most, which means such research is highly socially sensitive, suggest that research therefore doesn’t protect the individuals from harm. Cause and effect is also an issue as it remains unclear whether cognitive factors cause schizophrenia or if schizophrenia causes these cognitions so family dysfunction may not be a valid explanation for schizophrenia.

Answer 37

Schizophrenia is characterised by disturbance in language, attention, thought and perception. It has led to cognitive psychologists to explain the disorder as a result of dysfunctional thought processing. Lower than usual levels of processing (possible causes by biological factors) suggest that cognition is most likely to be impaired. Christopher frith suggested that schizophrenics fails to monitor their own thoughts correctly misattributing them to the outside world. When a person hears voices actually their own inner speech is being misinterpreted, however sufferers may believe that someone or something in the external world is communicating with them. Such processing problems in people with schizophrenia sometimes is referred to as alien control symptoms because the sufferer feels as if the external forces are influencing their thoughts and actions and have no personal control. The cognitive approach takes into account biological factors and claims the cause of initial sensory experiences of schizophrenia being additional features of schizophrenia appear when the individual attempts to explain these experiences and when an individual fist encounters these symptoms they turn to others to validate what they experienced, however this ultimately fails, which causes schizophrenics to believe that others are hiding the truth and start to develop delusional beliefs like paranoia distortion reality symptoms. There’s evidence to support the proposal that cognitive processes in people with schizophrenia are different to those of non schizophrenics as Stirling et al investigated the ability of patients with schizophrenia to recognise the drawing they had produced with their hand behind a screen. Auditory selective attention is the process by which the brain selects which sounds to respond to so the brain selects information to pay attention to and ignores the rest due to being bombarded with information from the outside world yet the processing abilities are limited. Auditory selective impairment negative symptoms of schizophrenia may be the result of cognitive strategies used by the individual to keep the mental stimulation to a manageable level. This happens when people experience potentially overwhelming levels of information from the external world and inner world it may also be due to auditory selective attention impairment make social interaction difficult as the individual is overloaded with auditory information as found by Pickering and catatonic schizophrenics have no choice but to withdraw from the world and they can keep sensory stimulation at a manageable level. A03: The cognitive approach describes how information processing is affected in schizophrenia and cognitive explanations describe the process/maintenance of the disorder. It doesn’t provide an explanation of what causes cognitive changes and therefore doesn’t offer an understanding about the initial cause (although it’s suggested this may be linked to a traumatic event) also cognitive disturbances may be symptoms of the disorder rather than an explanation. The cognitive explanation is compatible with the biological explanation as a role of biological factors emphasised like genes inherited and are responsible for dysfunctional thinking it’s further proposed that schizophrenics may experience neurological abnormalities which cause cognitive difficulties in attention, communication and dealing with potentially overwhelming amounts of information and some cognitive explanations relate to specific sub types/ symptoms and not others. There is empirical evidence to support the proposal of cognitive processes in people with schizophrenia which is different to those of non schizophrenics so if dysfunctional thought processing is said to be the root cause of the disorder then it would follow that childhood difficulties in information processing like a dyslexic would correlate with later onset of schizophrenia however there’s no specific evidence to support this link. The faulty attention system and self monitoring explanation accounts for positive symptoms of schizophrenia but not negative symptoms. It’s not clear whether cognitive dysfunction is the cause or effect of the disorder another case of the building the theory on observational correlation between thought processes and symptoms, correlations don’t prove cause for example H.M and patients studied by Schmolck et al where patients who have cognitive deficits, don’t show symptoms of schizophrenia which challenges the cognitive explanation. There are practical applications as an appeal of cognitive therapy can be used by patients who want to reduce/ refuse antipsychotic medication. Morrison et al found that drop out rates for cognitive therapy are lower than drugs therapy. The cognitive therapy is effective at reducing the symptoms of psychosis. The cognitive explanation is used by people to advocate the recovery model where the perspective encourages people who hear voices not to think of themselves as ‘’sick’’ and silence troubling thoughts with drugs, instead understand voices better and learn coping strategies to live with them. Meyer lindenberg et al provide physiological support for the cognitive explanation as they found a link between excess dopamine levels in the pre frontal cortex and working memory, suggesting that cognitive defects are associated with schizophrenia so the research has implications with the treatment of schizophrenia. Yellowlees et am have developed a machine that produces virtual hallucinations, for example hearing the TV telling you to kick yourself, the intention is so that schizophrenics are able to see their hallucinations aren’t real. However the cognitive explanation isn’t complete as it describes schizophrenia in more depth without explaining where it comes from, why some people have problems but others don’t and this criticism also applies to the dopamine hypothesis. The cognitive explanation fills some gaps in biological research for example biological psychologists notice that even if dopamine levels are corrected by using drugs, it still takes days/weeks for the positive symptoms to fade this could be because the faulty self-monitoring and poor attention carries on as a ‘’bad habit’’ even when dopamine activity is normal. But the cognitive explanations account for many positive symptoms of schizophrenia as well as cognitive deficits. It offers simpler underlying problems in place of a range of seemingly-unconnected symptoms, the cognitive explanation offers a valid understanding of schizophrenia. The research is scientific and replicable for example McGuigan found that vocal cords of patients with schizophrenia tense during the time when they’ve experienced auditory hallucinations suggesting that we’re mistaking our own inner speech for someone else’s voice.

Answer 38

Schizophrenia is characterised by disturbance in language, attention, thought and perception. It has led to cognitive psychologists to explain the disorder as a result of dysfunctional thought processing. Lower than usual levels of processing (possible causes by biological factors) suggest that cognition is most likely to be impaired. Christopher frith suggested that schizophrenics fails to monitor their own thoughts correctly misattributing them to the outside world. When a person hears voices actually their own inner speech is being misinterpreted, however sufferers may believe that someone or something in the external world is communicating with them. Such processing problems in people with schizophrenia sometimes is referred to as alien control symptoms because the sufferer feels as if the external forces are influencing their thoughts and actions and have no personal control. There is evidence that supports cognitive processes in schizophrenics which are different to non schizophrenics as research by stirling et al investigated the ability of schizophrenics to recognise a drawing that had been produced with a hand hidden behind the screen. Auditory selective attention is the process by which the brain selects which sounds to respond to so the brain selects information to pay attention to and ignores the rest due to being bombarded with information from the outside world yet the processing abilities are limited. Auditory selective impairment negative symptoms of schizophrenia may be the result of cognitive strategies used by the individual to keep the mental stimulation to a manageable level. This happens when people experience potentially overwhelming levels of information from the external world and inner world it may also be due to auditory selective attention impairment make social interaction difficult as the individual is overloaded with auditory information as found by Pickering and catatonic schizophrenics have no choice but to withdraw from the world and they can keep sensory stimulation at a manageable level. The biological explanation for schizophrenia is the dominant one and has received the greatest empirical support. The approach sees mental disorders as having physical causes; the number of biological explanations for schizophrenia has emerged theses being genetic vulnerability, the role of the neurotransmitter dopamine and neural correlations. The biological explanation is that schizophrenia is inherited as twin studies are used to investigate the relative contributions of genes and the environment in the development of schizophrenia because if it’s purely genetic the influences are then 100% concordance rate with monozygotic twins is expected and it’s 50% for dizygotic twins. The genetic effect demonstrated by Joseph who conducted a meta analysis of twin studies found 44% concordance rate for monozygotic and 7.4% for dizygotic. The dopamine hypothesis provides another biological explanation of schizophrenia, which suggests that dopamine neurons fire too easily and too often resulting in the development of schizophrenia symptoms and schizophrenics have abnormally high numbers of D2 receptors, resulting in more dopamine binding and more neurons firing dopamine guides the attention, therefore these disturbances may lead to problems relating to attention, perception and thought processes in schizophrenia such as delusions and disorganised thinking so drugs demonstrate the influence of dopamine. Amphetamines which are dopamine agonists stimulate the nerve cells containing dopamine flooding the synapse. High levels of dopamine lead to schizophrenic symptoms like hallucinations and delusions. Antipsychotics, dopamine antagonists reduce the stimulation of the dopamine system which leads to the elimination of symptoms for example hallucinations, strengthening the case for dopamine being a significant factor to schizophrenia and low dopamine levels are present in sufferers of Parkinson’s disease. Those people take L.Dopa which raises the dislike levels that start to display schizophrenic symptoms. A03: The cognitive approach describes how information processing is affected in schizophrenia and cognitive explanations describe the process/maintenance of the disorder. It doesn’t provide an explanation of what causes cognitive changes and therefore doesn’t offer an understanding about the initial cause (although it’s suggested this may be linked to a traumatic event) also cognitive disturbances may be symptoms of the disorder rather than an explanation. The cognitive explanation is compatible with the biological explanation as a role of biological factors emphasised like genes inherited and are responsible for dysfunctional thinking it’s further proposed that schizophrenics may experience neurological abnormalities which cause cognitive difficulties in attention, communication and dealing with potentially overwhelming amounts of information and some cognitive explanations relate to specific sub types/ symptoms and not others. Adoption studies support the explanation of schizophrenia which may be inherited and influenced by genes as Tienari el al found that 6.7% of adoptees whose mothers were schizophrenic also received a diagnosis of schizophrenia, compared to 2% of controls they concluded that genetic liability has been decisively confirmed. However cause and effect can’t be established as the dopamine hypothesis raises a problem where it’s uncertian whether dopamine levels are the cause of schizophrenia, or is the raised dopamine level the result of schizophrenia and it’s not clear which comes first. This suggests that we need to be careful when establishing cause and effect relationships in schizophrenic patients. The cognitive model is reductionist as it doesn’t consider factors like genes so problems caused by neurotransmitters creates cognitive deficits. The cognitive approach is also over simplistic and the genetic explanation is biologically reductionist. The genome project has an understanding of the complex of the gene. The lower number of genes that exist than anticipated and it’s now recognised that genes have multiple functions and many genes behaviour. Schizophrenia is a multi-factorial trait as a result of multiple genes and environmental factors and research into gene mapping is over simplistic because schizophrenia isn’t due to a single gene. The biological explanation makes it difficult to separate the influence of nature versus nurture as the fact that concordance rates are not 100% it means that schizophrenia can’t be explained by genes and could be that an individual has a pre disposition to schizophrenia and makes the individual more at risk of developing the disorder. Whereas the cognitive approach takes a nurture approach to the development of schizophrenia for example it suggests that schizophrenic behaviour is the cause of environmental factors like cognitive factors. Both explanations have practical applications as biological applications have led to antipsychotic drugs and drugs are much more effective at reducing positive symptoms than negative symptoms. But they have nasty side effects: lethargy, weight gain, sexual problems and a high risk of diabetes. The cognitive explanation has practical applications as Yellowless et al had a machine that produced virtual hallucinations, like hearing the TV telling you to kill yourself to show schizophrenics that hallucinations aren’t real. The Freudian psychodynamic explanations are criticised for not having experiments to support them, being subjective, unreliable and unscientific. The biological evidence is always a form of observed correlation and correlations don’t show cause or whether unusual brain activity (excessive dopamine activity,excessive synaptic pruning) causes schizophrenia or whether schizophrenia causes unusual brain activity or whether an unknown third factor is causing brain activity and schizophrenia.

Answer 39

The two methods to treating schizophrenia are biological and psychological. Antipsychotics are the most common treatment for schizophrenia taken as tablets or a form of syrup, some are avail el as injections taken every 2 to 4 weeks. Some people can take a short course of antipsychotics without return of symptoms but others require them for life. The dopamine hypothesis states the brain schizophrenic patients produces more dopamine than normal brains. The drugs which reduce the symptoms in people who are severely ill became known as antipsychotics. Antipsychotics are given to treat the most disturbing psychotic illness like schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. There are two types of antipsychotic drugs one of them is typical anti psychotic drugs which is used to combat positive symptoms like hallucinations/thought disturbances, they work by reducing the amount of dopamine, chlorpromazine, pimozide. The other antipsychotic drug is atypical anti psychotic drugs which also treat positive symptoms in addition to negative symptoms. Clozapine and risperidone are the typical anti psychotic drugs they work by binding to dopamine receptors particularly D2 receptors and blocking the action not stimulating them. By reducing the stimulation of dopamine system in the brain, antipsychotic drugs can eliminate hallucinations and delusions experience by patients with schizophrenia. The effectiveness of dopamine antagonists in reducing the symptoms of schizophrenia by reducing the action of the neurotransmitter is what led to the development of the dopamine hypothesis. Antagonists are chemicals which reduce the action of the neurotransmitter, dopamine antagonists work by blocking dopamine receptors in synapses of the brain by reducing the action of dopamine. Chlorpromazine causes dopamine levels to build up but then it’s production is reduced. It normalises the neurotransmitter in key areas of the brain and stops hallucinations. Chlorpromazine is an effective sedative and works on histamine receptors but it’s not fully understood how it leads to sedation and is often used to calm patient with other conditions. Typical anti psychotic drugs as found by Kapur et al is approximately 60-75% of D2 receptors need to be blocked in the mesolimbic pathway for the drugs to be effective meaning that D2 receptors in the rest of the brain that are blocked to leading to side effects. Atypical antipsychotic drugs are created to improve the effectiveness and reduce side effects examples of the type of drug include clozapine which are newer types of drugs that were founded in the 90s and are said to combat positive symptoms of schizophrenia as well as negative symptoms too as well as acting on the dopamine system they are thought to block serotonin receptors. They bind to dopamine receptors but rather than permanently block dopamine action they temporarily bind to receptors and rapidly disassociate which allows normal dopamine transmission. Risperidone is a more recently developed atypical antipsychotic in an attempt to be as effective as clozapine but without the side effects, like clozapine risperidone is believed to bind to receptors and therefore is more effective in smaller doses and it may lead to fewer side effects. Drugs treat symptoms of the disorder but not the cause and antipsychotic drug can’t seek out and kill or change the cause of schizophrenia as we don’t know what the cause of schizophrenia is do all drugs do is help to reduce the effects of the illness. CBT usually takes 5 - 20 sessions as the individual helps a patient to identify irrational thoughts and try to change them, this may involve arguments or a discussion of how likely the beliefs are true. CBT helps to make sense of how delusions and hallucinations impact feelings and behaviour for example believing voices are demonic, so it has helped to understand the existence of hallucinations which can help reduce the anxiety. With family therapy and our understanding of EE we know that people with schizophrenia are more likely to relapse if they come from families where they experience high levels of criticism, hostility and over involvement. Family therapy seeks to treat members of the family as well as the patient with schizophrenia, the hope is to reduce the high level of EE within household which is causing the relapse. Token economies aims to manage schizophrenia rather than treat it, this form of behavioural therapy where the desirable behaviours are encouraged by the use of selective reinforcement and based on operant conditioning. When desired behaviour is displayed for example getting dressed, tokens in the form of coloured discs which are given immediately as secondary reinforcers which can be exchanged for rewards for example sweets and cigarettes, this manages schizophrenia because it maintains desirable behaviour and it no longer reinforces undesirable behaviour. A03: The side effects can be a disadvantage as the long term use can result in tardive dyskinesia which manifests as involuntary facial movements like blinking and lip smacking, while they may be effective, the severity of the side effects mean the costs outweighs the benefits therefore it’s not an appropriate treatment. However it’s cost effective and antipsychotic drugs are highly effective and they’re relatively cheap to produce, easy to administer and have a positive effect on many sufferers. They don’t cure schizophrenia though, rather they dampen the symptoms down so patients can live normal lives in the community. Recovery may also be due to psychological factors, the placebo effect is when the patients’ symptoms are reduced because they believe it should as Thornley et al carried out a meta analysis comparing the effects chlorpromazine to placebo conditions and found that chlorpromazine is associated with better overall functioning so drug therapy is an effective treatment for schizophrenia. The problem with CBT is it’s lengthy as it takes months compared to drug therapy which takes weeks which leads to disengaged treatment as they don’t see immediate effects so the patient who’s very distressed and perhaps suicidal may benefit better in the short term form antipsychotics. However offering drugs can lead to an enhanced quality of life as the patients are given independence so this has also got a positive impact on the economy as patients can return to work and no longer need to be provide with institutional care. There are ethical issues are severely ill patients can’t get privileges because they’re less able to comply with desirable behaviour than moderately ill patients so they may suffer from discrimination. Other ethical issues are that antipsychotics have been used in hospitals to calm patients and make them easier for staffe to work with rather than for the patients benefit this can lead to abuse of the human rights act so no one should be subject to degrading treatment. Pharaoh et al conducted a meta analysis and found that family interventions to help the patient to understand the illness and live with it by developing emotional strength and coping skills it reduced the rates of relapse.

Answer 40

The two methods to treating schizophrenia are biological and psychological. Antipsychotics are the most common treatment for schizophrenia taken as tablets or a form of syrup, some are avail el as injections taken every 2 to 4 weeks. Some people can take a short course of antipsychotics without return of symptoms but others require them for life. The dopamine hypothesis states the brain schizophrenic patients produces more dopamine than normal brains. The drugs which reduce the symptoms in people who are severely ill became known as antipsychotics. Antipsychotics are given to treat the most disturbing psychotic illness like schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. There are two types of antipsychotic drugs one of them is typical anti psychotic drugs which is used to combat positive symptoms like hallucinations/thought disturbances, they work by reducing the amount of dopamine, chlorpromazine, pimozide. The other antipsychotic drug is atypical anti psychotic drugs which also treat positive symptoms in addition to negative symptoms. Clozapine and risperidone are typical are the typical anti psychotic drugs they work by binding to dopamine receptors particularly D2 receptors and blocking the action not stimulating them. By reducing the stimulation of dopamine system in the brain, antipsychotic drugs can eliminate hallucinations and delusions experience by patients with schizophrenia. The effectiveness of dopamine antagonists in reducing the symptoms of schizophrenia by reducing the action of the neurotransmitter is what led to the development of the dopamine hypothesis. Antagonists are chemicals which reduce the action of the neurotransmitter, dopamine antagonists work by blocking dopamine receptors in synapses of the brain by reducing the action of dopamine. Chlorpromazine causes dopamine levels to build up but then it’s production is reduced. It normalises the neurotransmitter in key areas of the brain and stops hallucinations. Chlorpromazine is an effective sedative and works on histamine receptors but it’s not fully understood how it leads to sedation and is often used to calm patient with other conditions. Typical anti psychotic drugs as found by Kapur et al is approximately 60-75% of D2 receptors need to be blocked in the mesolimbic pathway for the drugs to be effective meaning that D2 receptors in the rest of the brain that are blocked to leading to side effects. Atypical antipsychotic drugs are created to improve the effectiveness and reduce side effects examples of the type of drug include clozapine which are newer types of drugs that were founded in the 90s and are said to combat positive symptoms of schizophrenia as well as negative symptoms too as well as acting on the dopamine system they are thought to block serotonin receptors. They bind to dopamine receptors but rather than permanently block dopamine action they temporarily bind to receptors and rapidly disassociate which allows normal dopamine transmission. Risperidone is a more recently developed atypical antipsychotic in an attempt to be as effective as clozapine but without the side effects, like clozapine risperidone is believed to bind to receptors and therefore is more effective in smaller doses and it may lead to fewer side effects. Drugs treat symptoms of the disorder but not the cause and antipsychotic drug can’t seek out and kill or change the cause of schizophrenia as we don’t know what the cause of schizophrenia is do all drugs do is help to reduce the effects of the illness A03: The side effects can be a disadvantage as the long term use can result in tardive dyskinesia which manifests as involuntary facial movements like blinking and lip smacking, while they may be effective, the severity of the side effects mean the costs outweighs the benefits therefore it’s not an appropriate treatment. However it’s cost effective and antipsychotic drugs are highly effective and they’re relatively cheap to produce, easy to administer and have a positive effect on many sufferers. They don’t cure schizophrenia though, rather they dampen the symptoms down so patients can live normal lives in the community. Recovery may also be due to psychological factors, the placebo effect is when the patients’ symptoms are reduced because they believe it should as Thornley et al carried out a meta analysis comparing the effects chlorpromazine to placebo conditions and found that chlorpromazine is associated with better overall functioning so drug therapy is an effective treatment for schizophrenia. However Khan et al found that antipsychotics are generally effective for at least the first year but the second generation of drugs were no more effective than the first generation ones. However offering drugs can lead to an enhanced quality of life as the patients are given independence so this has also got a positive impact on the economy as patients can return to work and no longer need to be provide with institutional care. A positive of clozapine is that it targets multiple neurotransmitters, not just dopamine, and is shown to be effective than other antipsychotics, although there is the possibility of severe side effects particular the loss of white blood cells that fight infection even newer antipsychotic drugs, like risperidone and olanzapine are safer and also may be better tolerated.It may or may not treat illness as well as clozapine. Other ethical issues are that antipsychotics have been used in hospitals to calm patients and make them easier for staffe to work with rather than for the patients benefit this can lead to abuse of the human rights act so no one should be subject to degrading treatment. Although the patients are in danger of relapsing but without medication relapses are more common and more severe which suggests that drugs are effective.

Answer 41

CBT usually takes 5 - 20 sessions as the individual helps a patient to identify irrational thoughts and try to change them, this may involve arguments or a discussion of how likely the beliefs are true. CBT helps to make sense of how delusions and hallucinations impact feelings and behaviour for example believing voices are demonic, so it has helped to understand the existence of hallucinations which can help reduce the anxiety. With family therapy and our understanding of EE we know that people with schizophrenia are more likely to relapse if they come from families where they experience high levels of criticism, hostility and over involvement. Family therapy seeks to treat members of the family as well as the patient with schizophrenia, the hope is to reduce the high level of EE within household which is causing the relapse. Family therapy strategies involve forming a therapeutic alliance with all the family members and by reducing the stress of caring for a relative with schizophrenia and by improving the ability of the family to anticipate and solve problems which leads to reducing of anger and guilt, therefore it helps a family to achieve a balance of caring for a family member and their own life and improving families beliefs and behaviours towards schizophrenia. Token economies aims to manage schizophrenia rather than treat it, this form of behavioural therapy where the desirable behaviours are encouraged by the use of selective reinforcement and based on operant conditioning. When desired behaviour is displayed for example getting dressed, tokens in the form of coloured discs which are given immediately as secondary reinforcers which can be exchanged for rewards for example sweets and cigarettes, this manages schizophrenia because it maintains desirable behaviour and it no longer reinforces undesirable behaviour. A03: The problem with CBT is it’s lengthy as it takes months compared to drug therapy which takes weeks which leads to disengaged treatment as they don’t see immediate effects so the patient who’s very distressed and perhaps suicidal may benefit better in the short term form antipsychotics. A study by Anderson et al found a relapse rate of almost 40% when patients had drugs only, compared to 20% when they did family therapy or social skills training and relapse rate was less than 5% when both were used together with medication. Pharaoh et al conducted a meta analysis and found that family interventions to help the patient to understand the illness and live with it by developing emotional strength and coping skills it reduced the rates of relapse. However it’s difficult to keep the treatment going once patients are back at home in a community as Kazdin et al found that changes in behaviour achieved through token economies don’t remain when the tokens are withdrawn, suggesting that such treatments address the effects of schizophrenia rather than the causes so it’s not a cure. There are economic benefits as family therapy is highly cost effective because it reduces the relapse rates, so patients are less likely to take up hospital beds and resources. A NICE review of family therapy studies demonstrated it was associated with significant cost saving when offered to patients alongside standard care so relapse rates are also lower suggesting that savings could be even higher. Lobban reports that other family members felt they were able to cope better thanks to family therapy and in extreme cases patients might be unable to cope with the pressures of having to discuss their ideas and feelings and could become stressed by therapy, or over fixated with the details of their illness. There are ethical issues are severely ill patients can’t get privileges because they’re less able to comply with desirable behaviour than moderately ill patients so they may suffer from discrimination. McMonagle and Sultana reviewed token economy regimes over a 15 year period, finding that they did reduce negative symptoms, thought it was unclear if behavioural changes were maintained beyond the treatment programme.

Answer 42

Gender dysphoria is an individuals sense of feeling uncomfortable or inappropriate with their sex and gender assigned to them. This may lead to gender reassignment surgery GID (gender identity disorder) is the psychiatric classification for those who experience gender dysphoria but not intersex individuals. Gander is the cultural differences expected by society or culture of men and women according to their sex. A person sex doesn’t change from birth, but their gender can. The biological approach suggests there’s no distinction between sex and gender, biological sex creates gendered behaviour. Garder is determined by two biological factors which are hormones and chromosomes. As the evolutionary approach is the biological one, it suggests that aspects of human behaviour have been coded by our genes because they were or are adoptive. The central claim of evolutionary psychology is that the brain (and therefore mind) has evolved to solve problems encountered by our hunter- gatherer ancestors during the upper Pleistocene period over 10,000 years ago. The evolutionary approach argues that gender role division appears as adaptation to the challenges faced by ancestral humans in an EEA ( environment of evolutionary adaptation). Hormones are chemical substances secreted by the glands throughout the body and carried in the bloodstream. Same sex hormones occur in men and women, but differ in amount and in the effect that they have on different parts of the body. Testosterone is the sex hormone, that is more present in males than females and affects the development and behaviour before and after birth. Testosterone, when released in the womb, causes the development of male sex organs at 7 weeks and acts upon the hypothalamus which results I masculinisation of the brain). Testosterone can cause typical male behaviours like aggression, competitiveness, visuospatial abilities, higher sexual drive etc. The area of the hypothalamus is at the base of the brain called sexually dimorphic nucleus much larger in males than females. At about 6 weeks the SRY gene on the Y chromosome causes gonads (sex organs) of the embryo to develop as testes. If the embryo has no Y chromosome, it will not have a SRY gene, without the SRY gene, the gonads will develop as ovaries. Sometimes the SRY gene is missing from the Y chromosome, or doesn’t activate. The foetus grows, is born, and lives as a little girl, and later as a woman, but her chromosomes are XY. Such people are, usually, clearly a women to themselves and everyone else. Koopman et al found that mice that were genetically female developed into male mice if the SRY gene was implanted, the most controversial uses of this discovery was as a men’s and for gender verification at the Olympic Games, under a system implemented by the international Olympic committee in 1992. The athletes with the SRY gene weren’t permitted to participate as females. Individuals with atypical chromosomes develop differently than individuals with typical chromosomes: socially, physically and cognitively. Studying people with turners syndrome and klinefelters syndrome might help our understanding of gender because by studying people with atypical sex chromosomes and comparing their development with that of people with typical sex chromosomes, psychologists are able to establish which types of behaviour are genetic for example determined by chromosomes. Turners syndrome (XO) occurs when the female develops with only one X chromosome on chromosome 23 ( 1 in 5000 chance). The absence of a second X chromosome results in the child with female external appearance but the ovaries failed to develop. The physical characteristics of individuals with turners syndrome include a lack of maturation at puberty and webbing of the neck. There’s differences in cognitive skills and behaviour compared with typical chromosome patterns. Affected individuals have a higher than average verbal ability but lower than average spatial ability, visual memory and mathematical skills. They also have difficulty in social adjustment at school and generally have poor relationships with their peers. Klinefelters syndrome (XXY) affects one in every 750 males, these men also have additional X on the 23rd chromosome, leading to an arrangement of XXY. Physically they appear male, though the effect of the additional X chromosome causes less body hair and under developed genitals. The syndrome becomes noticeable in childhood, as the boy has poor language skills. At 3 years old, the child may still not talk. At school, he may have poor language skills that affect his reading ability. When they’re babies, the temperament is described as passive and co-operative. The calmness and shyness remains throughout their lives which suggests that levels of aggression has a biological complement rather than an environmental component. A03: It’s difficult to distinguish between the effect of nature and nurture and if females have been diagnosed early they have been treated differently by doctors and parents and if they’re small for their age it does make them shy and less willing to interact with their peers so it leaves a question of whether their environment (nurture) creates a difference or is it due to biology (nature). However Lombard et al conducted research that suggests that the hormones that babies are exposed to in the womb have a lasting impact on the individuals, the research involved examining testosterone levels during foetal development that has shown that higher levels of testosterone during foetal development can result in higher levels of impulsivity later in life. The research in this area is scientific for example ultrasound scanning which makes it more reliable and lends support to the debate as to whether psychology is a science. Psychology working alongside a medical profession creates a more holistic view of the human condition so benefit from the collaboration and sharing of information and status of psychology as a science is enhanced. However Cole studies 435 gender dysphoria sufferers and found there’s no greater incidence of psychiatric problems than in the general population, so gender dysphoria seems generally unrelated to childhood trauma or dysfunctional families. Real life case studies support the effects of the chromosomes and hormones and over the environment on gender development. The case of the Reimer twins is due to an accident during circumcision surgery where one twin was left without a penis. The parents and doctors decided to bring him up as a girl but when Brenda found out the truth she immediately returned to being David , he was psychologically and emotionally scarred by his experience and committed suicide at 38. This highlights the strong pull of chromosomes and hormones on human behaviour and it would appear that socialisation isn’t enough to change someone’s gender. The biological explanation may be too simplistic or reductionist as psychologists are aware of how powerful an individuals environment is in this case family, cultural and social norms. People change their behaviour towards a child as soon as they learn of the child’s sex and to separate biological and psychological explanation may be impossible. It’s also a deterministic approach which implies that men and women have little choice or control over their behaviours like women being natural ‘nurturers’ and men being naturally aggressive and competitive. The consequence in modern society is that equal opportunities policies are doomed to fail as men are ‘naturally’ more competitive, so there is risk taking and they’re likely to progress up the career ladder. The problem with case studies of individual with klinefelters and turners syndromes is that although they can be compared to assess whether or not these chromosomes impact on gender and in turners syndrome it’s noted that female sufferers lack social skills of females with regular chromosome pattern and it’s argued that the lack of oestrogen and therefore underdevelopment of the reproductive system contributes to these social deficits however case studies are difficult to generalise the results, small samples are used to draw conclusions and it may be narrow to assume the same deficits apply to all sufferers so to improve this the case studies should be more detailed with the results should be collected over a longer period of time to make the research useful for developing an in depth understanding. But klinefelters syndrome gives an interesting insight into the effects of biology on gender and the impact of nature and biology in syndromes appears to be strong and has large effects on individuals so the fact that syndromes like these exist means that doctors can study the differences between typical and atypical chromosome patterns which is a benefit as psychologists can learn about the effects of chromosomes on gender. With the medical profession being able to learn more there’ll be more reliable testing for babies whilst still in the womb which can lead to earlier diagnosis and therefore successful treatment is offered sooner.

Answer 43

The psychosexual stages are oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital. The first is oral and at this stage which is birth to the first year the libido is centred in a baby’s mouth. During the oral stages, the baby gets much satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in it’s mouth to satisfy the libido, and thus the ID demands. During the oral stage it’s mouth orientated such as sucking, biting and breastfeeding. Freud said that oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later life, and we see oral personalities all around such as smokers or nail biters. The next stage is the anal stage at 1-3 years, during the anal stage of psychosexual development the libido becomes focused on the anus, and the child derives great pleasure from defecating. The child isn’t fully aware that they’re a person in their own right and that their wishes can bring them into conflict with the demands of the outside world ie their ego has developed. Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to lead to potty training in which adults impose restrictions on when and where the child can defecate. Early or harsh potty training can lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive personality who hates mess, is obsessively tidy, punctual and respectful of authority. The phallic stage is the third stage at 3-6 years where pleasure is centred around the genitals and the Oedipus and Electra complexes occur which is resolved by identification. The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the conflict between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud called the Oedipus complex and the Electra complex. This is resolved through the process of identification, which involves the child adopting the characteristics of the same sex parent. After passing through the oral and anal psychosexual stages of development Freud argued that males and females experience a different complex during the phallic stage at age 5. If the child successfully resolves this crisis they acquire gender behaviour that’s typical of their sex. He believes that sex is important to humans not just for reproduction but for pleasure and thought that children were born gender neutral at birth and during the phallic stage of development at age 4-5 years they would develop a masculine or feminine gender. Freud argues the individual constructs gender identity after experiencing the Oedipus or Electra complex. The Oedipus complex is where boys wish to be the sole object of their mother’s attention and experience immature sexual desires for her. They view the father as a rival for the mother’s attention/affection but they also fear the father and feel guilty about their desires to get rid of him. The fear of the father is experienced as a fear of castration and the fear is repressed in the unconscious. To resolve this crisis, boys repress their desires for their mother and enter a period of sexual latency which lasts until puberty, where they find a substitute mother in the form of a girlfriend/partner. They also identify with and internalise their fathers gender role and adopt stereotypically masculine behaviours. The Electra complex is where girls are initially attracted to their mothers in the same way as boys. But the awareness of a lack of penis leads to the girl believing she’s been castrated and is experiencing penis envy. The girls immature sexual desires then focus on the father. To resolve this crisis the girl converts their desires for a penis into a desire for a baby. The girl then identifies with the mother and internalises stereotypical feminine behaviours. The girl represses the desires for the father and enter a period of sexual latency which lasts until puberty where they find a substitute mother in the form of a boyfriend/partner. The way boys and girls resolve conflict with the parents is to identify with the same sex parent. Identification involves the child adopting the behaviour and attitudes of the parent. This is done in order to protect the child from any anxiety caused by conflict between them and the parent. Identifying with parent means that the child isn’t only able to develop a superego as they adopt the morals of the parent but they also develop the gender identity and the role, which might explain why boys and girls around 5 or 6 years tend to follow the behaviour of the same sex parent for example the boys might want to do the same job as the dad whilst the girls help around the house. The motivation for identification in boys is much stronger than in girls as boys fear castration which means that boys gender identity is much stronger than girls. The Oedipus and Electra complex are both resolved through identification with the same sex parent. This results in acquisition of the superego which is the third part of the psyche and gender identity and Freud believes that this plays a huge role in creating gender stereotypes and children’s understanding of how to behave in gender appropriate ways the process of children taking all of this on board is internalisation. The presence of brothers and sister is thought to complicate this process and each person has a slightly different experience and relationship with their parents and each person develops different levels of masculinity and femininity. The latent stage is the fourth stage at age six to puberty where the sex drive is dormant and the energy is focused upon friendships. Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and sexual energy can be sublimated towards school work, hobbies and friendships. The genital stage is the final stage from puberty to adolescence which culminates with psychosexual energy taking residence in the genitals to be directed towards formation of adult relationships. It involves a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling down in a loving relationship with another person in their 20s. Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self pleasure like during the phallic stage and for Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual intercourse. Fixation and conduct may prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions may develop, for example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure primarily from kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse. A03: Freud’s theory lacks empirical evidence to support or even disprove them, they can’t be falsified as there’s little evidence to suggest little boys fear castration especially at the hands of their fathers. It suggests his theories lack validity we can however give credit for the amount of research Freud’s theory has generated as Melaine Klein in the 192s and onwards have specialised in psychoanalytic theories of gender and have been built on Freud’s work and this work influenced psychoanalytic feminism in the US and helps to inspire people. There is evidence that Freud’s controversial case study of little Hans that formed the basis for the belief in the Oedipus complex. 5 year old Hans was repressed and displaced his fear of the father. Freud claimed that he expressed sexual desire towards his mother and wished his father dead and feared castration. Rekers and morgy investigate a sample of boys with gender identity disorders and found that in many cases their fathers were absent from birth or had left before the age of 5 and even when the fathers were around they were often described as remote so not all of the evidence is supportive. There is a lack of research evidence as there’s little to no reliability in Freud’s work and most of it is based on clinical experience and case studies which tend to be unique examples and as Freud was so involve and responsible for reporting them we could also say they’re biased and highly subjective and there’s no way to replicate this work to test it for reliability. Case studies are highly criticisable for generalising from a sample of one boy , and Freud may have interpreted hans’s behaviour to provide proof for the Oedipus complex. There is also researcher bias as Freud may have been persuaded to make the results fit his theories with evidence. There is evidence from theories for example kohlberg claimed that gender identity happens before the age Freud suggests as there’s empirical evidence for this casts doubt on Freud’s theory and caldera et al found that children as young as 18 months choose gender specific toys so girls choose to play with feminine toys and boys with masculine toys. Freud believed that behaviour on multiple cases was over determination not just the conscious causes we can identify he believed the unconscious causes determined behaviour and is important in explaining behaviour. One aspect of psychic determination is the view that all behaviours have a cause whether it’s conscious or unconscious or known or not known so how a child negotiates it’s way through psychosexual stages will have a determining effect on gender identity as they grow up according to Freud no free will be involved. There are other issues with Freud’s theories like gender bias as most of his cases hardly involve the use of female case studies so the studies were only conducted on men which means that most of his research isn’t applicable to the female population and doesn’t give us an insight into the way females see gender or how their gender develops and if it’s a different process compared to men although through the change of history more studies are being conducted on females into gender development.

Answer 44

The SLT (social learning theory) claims that behaviour is learned as a result of observing and imitating models and from experiment reinforcement. Social learning theorists propose that even something as complex as gender is learned in the same way with people learning gender appropriate behaviours from models. Models are anyone who an individual may identify with, be attracted to or idolise for example parents,peers or celebrities so an individual can learn gender roles from models directly or indirectly. Direct learning occurs when an individual is directly involved in reinforcement of behaviour for example if a girl is positively reinforced for putting on makeup whilst copying her mothers behaviours then this is a direct experience. Gender roles and behaviour can be socially learned directly with gender appropriate desirable behaviours being positively reinforced and cross gendered undesirable behaviours being punished. Indirect learning occurs when an individual isn’t directly involved and doesn’t experience reinforcement first but is still influenced by them. Models like celebrities can be observed and imitated based on reinforcement/consequences behaviours lead to for example if a boy watches their brother being punished for playing with dolls then the boy will lean that he shouldn’t play with dolls aka vicarious learning and these are key ways in which people learn gender roles. Slt acknowledges the role that social context plays in the development and states that all behaviour including gender learned behaviour by observing and imitating others. The approach draws attention to influences of the environment (nurture). At birth girls and boys are psychologically the same and gender differences are leaned through differences in ways that boys and girls are treated. The main principles of slt is that we learn through observation (watching and internalising the consequences of other people’s actions) , children look to models for guidance as to how they should act and imitate the behaviour observed which suggests that gender related behaviour is learnt when we receive vicarious reinforcement for behaviour. The environment is important in shaping gender development as it includes the significant others that the child comes into contact with like parents, teachers and peers. Gender is developed by identifying with the people who model gender behaviour. Identification is the internal process whereby a child attaches himself/herself to a person see to be like them/because the person is like someone they want to be although not all behaviour is imitated as there needs to be some quality or characteristic in the role model that a person wants to imitate and individuals tend to identify with the same sex role models. Social learning theorists suggested four cognitive processes that are central to learning of gender behaviour. The first is attention where a behaviour needs to be modelled by someone one that wants to imitate it. The second process is retention where the modelled behaviour needs to be remembered. The third process is reproduction so trying out the behaviour so the person needs to believe they’re capable of copying. The fourth process is motivation because there needs to be a reason to repeat the behaviour either because it’s someone a person admires or because the modelled behaviour is rewarded. The learning is the acquisition of behaviour and is done through attention and retention. The performance so the performing of the behaviour is done through reproduction and motivation is the behaviour is repeated enough it becomes internalised so it becomes part of the individuals identity. But gender identity isn’t simply one behaviour but a mixture of all modelled behaviour that an individual has been exposed to and have been imitated and reinforced. The slt sees social learning as ongoing processes. The experience changes the behaviour that an individual chooses to display so gender is seen as a social construct and we modify our behaviour depending on age or a social situation which would explain why as a society it has changed acceptable gender roles within society because it’s changed for example women are becoming more assertive and men are becoming more caring/ nurturing. A03: However critics argue that slt doesn’t provide an adequate explanation of how learning processes change with age are there are some age limitations within the theory for example motor reproduction as a mediational process suggests that children may struggle to perform behaviours if they’re not physically/intellectually capable so the general implication is the modelling of gender appropriate behaviour can occur at any age ie from birth onwards so the influences of age and maturation ie development on learning gender concepts isn’t a factor considered by slt and is a limitation of the theory. But there is evidence to suggest that people who watch a lot of TV have stronger gender stereotypes this is seen in McGhee and freuhs research who found that people who view a lot of TV have stronger gender stereotypes than compared to people view little so women and men in TV are role modelling stereotypical gender behaviour. Other evidence comes from Smith and Lloyd who conducted research where 4-6 month babies were irrespective of their actual sex dresses half the time in hours clothes and half the time in girls clothes and boys were given boy appropriate toys and were encouraged to be active and adventurous and girls were given girl appropriate toys and were told they were pretty and they were also reinforced for being passive which suggests that gender appropriate behaviour is stamped in at an early age through differential reinforcement. But the social learning approach is unable to explain why children that are reared in a one parent or homosexual families don’t have difficulties with the development of gender identity. So there’s no evidence that the absence of a powerful same sex model, or non stereotypical models for male/female behaviour, can affect a child’s gender identity also children do persist in behaviour which they don’t see modelled for example the film billy Elliot who was drawn to ballet and desperately wanted to be a ballet dancer, despite being surrounded by men who were a typical male stereotype and the only ballet dancers were female, but he didn’t want to be female, as he was comfortable as a male so he just wanted to dance. Because of the shift in social expectations and cultural norms like androgyny has meant new forms of acceptable gender behaviour is reinforced. The shift is better explained by slt rather than the biological approach as the basic biology remains the same. Slt has little emphasis on the influence of genes and chromosomes and considers the role of the environment. The David reimers case demonstrated it wasn’t possible to override the chromosomal influence. The biological approach is more appropriate and the innate biological differences are reinforced through social interaction and cultural expectations where the psychodynamic approach would agree with as Freud is in agreement with the slt view in terms of accepting the fact that same sex parents have a key influence on a child’s gender development. The psychodynamic approach would however accuse the slt of focusing on conscious mediational processes and ignoring the importance of the unconscious. Williams carried out a natural experiment in an isolated community called Notel and introduced TV for the first time. He did measures of attitudes and behaviour before and after the introduction of the TV, There were also two other towns used for the comparison purposes. He found that in two years following the introduction of the TV, children of Notel became much more stereotyped in gender attitudes and there was no corresponding change in the comparison towns. The children were reassessed two years after and found that behaviours/attitudes have become significantly more sex typed, which implies that media/media stereotypes can have an effect on how children think about their own/ others gender and led to pressure on the programme makers to present males and females in a non gender typed ways to encourage women to pursue for example careers typically defined as male like a lawyer. Contradictory research by Martin et al in 1995 found that preschool boys played with toys labelled boys toys and did this even if they saw girls playing with them, they didn’t play with toys labelled girls toys even when boys played with them which suggests that direct instructions are more important than modelling.

Answer 45

Culture is ideas, customs and social behaviour of a particular group of people or society. Cross culture is noted for available contribution to nature versus nurture debate in gender, the debate doubts whether variations in psychological and behavioural traits causes but innate/environmental factors, the universal factors suggest that there is an innate basis for gender and supports the nature view. Culturally specific features are found in some places and not others which suggests that gender so learned and so this supports then nurture view of the nature versus nurture debate. Gender differences results from innate differences between female and male (genes,chromosomes ). Gender differences are caused by innate tendencies are modified by environmental factors (nurture). Gender differences result from different experiences females and males have as they develop so they’re learning from their family, peers and society. Margaret mead conducted a detailed ethnographic study into living with various tribes in New Guinea for 6 months with the arapesh tribe and found that both men and women are feminine so they’re it’s very expressive caring and cooperative. The male and female took to the bed when the female was pregnant and both were said to bear the child. In the mundugomar tribe bothe the sexes were masculine so they were assertive , arrogant and fierce. Both didn’t like childcare and the baby was put in a dark place and in the tchambuli tribe the gender roles were reversed compared to western society. Families room took care of trade and were independent whereas the men sat around gossiping and were considered incapable of making decisions. Meads findings meant that there may not be a direct biological relationships between sex and gender and that gender roles depend on culture. Later the work mead conceded she underestimated the universal nature of many gender typical behaviours and she argues the extent to which innate behaviours expressed are a result of cultural norms so judging them on western views. David buss conducted a survey in 37 countries where participants had to rate the importance of certain characteristics of a potential mate males rated good looks and youth as important because it’s a good indicator of her health and ability to be a mother. Chastity was also important true to wanting faithfulness. Women rated financial prospects, industriousness and dependability. This supports the proposal that there’s cross cultural similarities on gender roles and many women and men instinctively seeks similar traits (universal traits). Communication channels like TV, film and books through which news entertainment education and data made available. Media provide the role models with whom children may identify and want to imitate. The media play a role in reinforcing stereotypes concerning male and female behaviour there is evidence that the media do provide clear stereotypes that are quite rigid so men are depicted as independent, ambitious and advice givers and women are depicted as dependent, unambitious and advice seekers. Children who have more exposure to popular forms of media tend to display gender stereotypes as McGhee and Freuh found that people who view a lot of tv tend or display gender stereotypical views in behaviour and attitudes than people who view little. The media does more than confirm gender typical behaviour it may also give information to males and females in terms of likely success or otherwise of adopting these behaviours and seeing other people perform gender appropriate behaviours increases the child’s belief to be capable of carrying out behaviours in the future, Bandura referred to this as self efficacy. A03: With David buss’s cross cultural research it could be argued that the researchers presence may have altered the behaviour of those being studied which could’ve altered the results and therefore meaning inaccurate conclusions could’ve been made. Furnham and Farragher investigated the use of sex role stereotypes in advertising where men tended to be used in power positions and women were in familial roles within the domestic settings. The voiceovers were male suggesting that males were deemed to speak with more authority which suggests that media may play a role in reinforcing widespread social stereotypes concerning male and female behaviour. There is research into the effects of culture and media on gender roles that provide supports for the slt explanation of gender as slt suggest that we learn gender roles by observation of role models and copy or imitate models we see especially if we see that the models are being rewarded or reinforced for their behaviours. The media provides us with role models and often males and females in the media are portrayed in gender stereotypical ways for example females looking after children and males who are breadwinners. There are cultural differences in gender roles which we can explain through socialisation and experience which is how slt suggests we acquire gender roles. There are criticisms of meads research as mead maybe become too involved with the tribe due to the reason of the findings sometimes being criticised for being too subjective as there’s a suggesting that she exaggerated the differences and characteristics of each male and female groups as she found that males are more aggressive in tribes although this wasn’t reported. Another issue is that it’s difficult to establish cause and effect as the media has considerable influence on the formation and maintenance of children gender stereotypes but it’s leaves the question does the media create these or does it simply reflect prevailing social norms about female and males. Another problem of meads research is communication as studying different language in different countries can make communication very difficult and so interpretation may be inaccurate. It’s difficult to establish the media effect without having control groups as the vast majority of children are exposed to the media on a regular basis and therefore finding control groups of children who are beyond the media’s influence aren’t available for comparison. Cross cultural research doesn’t solve the nature versus nurture debate it simply provides an insight into the different cultural practices impact upon gender role behaviour as it’s actually impossible to separate the two influences on the development of gender roles as soon as children are born they are identified as either male/female and immediately socialisation into a particular society starts with gender role expectations come with it. It’s difficult to determine whether nature stops and nurture begins and the likely complex and constant interaction between both influences and each influences the other in the development of gender roles. Some of the gender related behaviour is governed by our biological make but only innate predisposing can be modified by the environment and the development experiences.

Answer 46

The cognitive approach focuses on the mental process and how our understanding of our own and other peoples gender is particularly important and these changes are universal meaning that all children go through them. There is a consequence of maturation as growing up children discover they’re male/female much like they develop in other ways and they identify with members of their own sex and in many ways this is a common sense of view of gender development as it suggests how we make sense of gender is important and particularly how children view gender differences and come to understand their own gender identity. Kohlbergs cognitive developmental theory meant that a child’s understanding of gender was developed in stages that related to the childs age and he applied this to gender by arguing that a child’s understanding of gender will increase in line with cognitive abilities. It could be said that very young children have a basic understanding of the world and consequently a very basic understanding of gender. As we grow older so does the view of the world as it becomes more sophisticated and so does our understanding of gender. Kohlberg proposed three stages of gender development which is universal and generally occurs about the same age. The only difference in children across the world is likely in terms of the particular view of masculinity/femininity from one culture to another. The theory is mostly nature but there is some small amount of nurture. Gender identity starts at the age of 2-3 years old where the child recognises a boy or a girl. They believe they can change for example a little boy may say when I grow up ill be a mummy so they’re understanding is based on labels without an understanding of what it really means and certainly without understanding that labels are forever. The child at this stage bases judgments entirely on appearance for example mommy is a girl because she wears dresses so it’s not unusual for a child at this stage to believe they could change sex if they looked different for example if a boy puts his moms shoes on he may claim he’s now a girl. Gender stability is the next stage at age 4-5 where a child realises their gender is fixed and remains stable over time for example a little boy realises he won’t be a mummy and this understanding is heavily influenced by external factors like clothes and hair. Children in this stage are very egocentric and results in finding difficulty to see things from the point of view of others so even though they know they can’t change their own sex they don’t generalise this to others meaning that if other people are dressed/ behaving in sex inappropriate ways they may believe the other person has changed their sex for example if a dad puts on a dress he can now be a woman. The next stage is gender constancy at age 6-7 and up where a child understands that not only is gender stable but consistent over time and situations for example men can have long hair so the child has now lost their egocentricity and has started to be able to recognise if they dress up as the opposite sex they remain the same sex and so will others. The child now understands sex is consistent across a variety of situations and not merely related to whether someone is masculine or feminine whilst the child may find it strange if a girl wants to play rugby they wouldn’t believe they’ve changed sex. Kohlberg argued this stage is where the child starts to seek out role models for their own behaviour to help develop their sense of gender fully. Schemas are units of knowledge about a particular object or situation and so it follows that a gender schema is all the knowledge someone has about behaviour and characteristics associated with gender. According to the GST Martin and Halverson claim that as soon as children label themselves as one sex or another they begin to seek out information to a further understanding of what it means it to be male or female. The information helps to form and strengthen gender schema as it’s used to help a child decide how to act as a boy or a girl. First gender schemas are concerned with what kind of behaviour is appropriate for boys and girls and then children begin to form stereotypical ideas about what is appropriate for each sex for example boys should play right and girls should play with dolls. Children who develop gender scripts to relate to a series of actions might be carried out in a typical day for a male/female for example a mom might make dinner whilst the dad fixes cars. So children now start to pay much more attention to activities that fit with the schema for sex and ignore activities that don’t have any information that conflicts with the schema and doesn’t fit the stereotype is disregarded and not allowed to confuse matters and it allows stereotypes about male and female behaviour to remain intact. A03: Kohlbergs theory is descriptive rather than explanatory as the theory describes how a child’s thinking regarding gender changes as they get older. The theory fails to explain why gender schemas change with age. What’s affecting the child’s schemas/thinking to change over time? The slt claims that a child’s thinking is affected by reinforcement and imitation. Slt provides an account of the children’s motivation selecting and conforming to gender categories. But kohlbergs theory predicts as infants grow older they’re increasingly accurate in correctly labelling gender. Thompson found 76% of two year olds could accurately identify their sex, and 90% of three year olds could. Slaby asked young children questions such as ‘we’re you a girl or a boy when you were a baby?’ And ‘when you grow up will you be a mummy or a daddy?’ As predicted by kohlberg, infants only started to give correct answers once they had recognised gender was stable over time for example stage two gender stability. Other supporting research is by Liben and Signorella who showed 106 primary school children 60 drawings of male and female characters engaged in masculine, feminine and neutral activities/occupations for example firefighter or washing dishes and asked them to recall as many of the pictures as possible. The results were that children recalled more pictures of men performing masculine behaviours than of men feminine behaviours so the influence of gender schemas can be so strong that counter stereotypical information may be distorted to make it fit in with schemas. Kohlbergs theory states that there’ll be no/very little gender role behaviour shown before the child reaches gender constancy aged 6-7 onwards but found that even at a very young age children show preferences for stereotypical gender specific toys. There’s research evidence from Munroe et al that suggests that children who go through the three stage process kohlberg has outlined in the theory which has implications if children actively interact with the world around them to develop gender identity and they may be influenced by parental and educational decisions and policies. Martin and halverson agreed with kohlberg that a child’s thinking is the basis of gender behaviour, but believed that thinking starts earlier as Martin argues that the process of acquiring gender relevant information happens before gender consistency/constancy is achieved at age 6. Martin argues that basic gender identity is acquired at the gender labelling stage aged 2 which is sufficient for an infant to take an interest in and begin identifying with gender. The study was an experimental situation and there were good controls and precise measurements but the validity is questionable due to the artificial environment and the unusual questions. GST along with slt and kohlbergs theory focuses on the child as an individual rather than as part of a social group so it’s viewed as too simplistic which makes it reductionist as other research shows how important social norms and culture are. It’s likely the child’s behaviours will be viewed in a biased or ethnocentric manner ie from a cultural perspective of adults and other children this will contribute to the shaping of both behaviour and identity.

Answer 47

Social influences on gender are things such as parents, peers, schools and media. Parents reinforce behaviour they think is gender appropriate for children and encourage gender based behaviour, this is done through differential reinforcement where children are rewarded for gender appropriate behaviour but not rewarded for other behaviours for example parents reward girls by giving them attention when behaving femininely but not rewarded if behaving in masculine way leads to reinforcement of feminine behaviour. Parents might punish their children for showing the opposite gender behaviour which makes them unlikely to repeat the behaviour. Peers can act as models for children for gender appropriate behaviour and like parents they’ll reinforce gender appropriate behaviour and children reward each other for gender appropriate behaviours and punish each other for gender appropriate behaviours. Gender development is also influenced through school environments because it provides the environment for children to interact which leads to peer influence. Teachers are also a form of influence and are likely to reinforce gender appropriate behaviours and aspirations and can act as role models which increases the influence on gender development. The media portrays males as dependent, directive and pursuing engaging occupations and activities and females portrayed as dependent, unambitious and emotional so it exposes children to models of gender appropriate behaviour. The media provides information about likely outcomes of behaviours and an individuals self efficacy will increase if the outcomes are portrayed as positive. A03: The research evidence for the influence of media on gender stereotypes comes from correlation analyses so people who watch more TV hold a stronger gender-stereotyped views doesn’t necessarily show that TV is the cause of these attitudes. An alternative explanation for correlation is highly gender stereotyped children who watch more TV as confirms the world view. Most correlations found that between TV and gender stereotyping is weak suggesting that media is not particularly influential. The research has lead to pressure on broadcasters to alter TV shows to stop reinforcing gender stereotypes in order to alter such attitude has in society for example pingree found that when children were shown commercials in which women were in non traditional roles, stereotyping is reduced. It could be done more frequently in regular broadcasting in order to weaken or change gender stereotypes. There is vast research support for the row of parents in reinforcing gender role for example Smith and Lloyd found that mothers who selected gender appropriate toys for children for example dolls for girls or squeaky hammers for boys and responded more actively when a boy showed increased motor activity (a typically masculine skill) , showing the role of differential reinforcement in gender development. A criticism of social models is they are ‘a developmental’: which suggests the processes of learning gender appropriate behaviours are the same at all ages so research shows the processes by which individuals learn change with age, something which cognitive developmental theories provide a better explanation for. Cognitive developmental theories are also a better explanation as to why children adhere to only same sex stereotypes and ignore opposite sex schemas. There is research support for the role of scholastic environments as the driving the force behind gender development. Perry and Bussey found that children who imitate behaviour of same sex models like teachers as long as the behaviour wasn’t inconsistent with gender stereotypes which shows that teachers are influential towards gender development, though the effects of modelling can be limited by pre existing gender stereotypes. Despite the evidence showing the influence of parents, maccoby and jacklin found no significant differences in the extent to which boys and girls were reinforced for aggressiveness or autonomy, two things which vary between genders. Studies have found few gender differences in terms of parental warmth, discipline, or encouragement of achievement or dependency and the findings refute the influence of parents in establishing gender roles. Some psychologists hold the view that peers are the most important social agents of gender development, and there’s a large amount of research evidence that demonstrates the importance of peers, as Lamb and Roopnarine found that pre school children simply reinforce gender role stereotypes rather than creating new ones which suggests that peers are less important to gender development in early childhoods. There is evidence that suggests that exposure to tv increases gender stereotypes as Williams found that children in a Canadian town with access to multiple TV channels had more strongly sex types views than children in towns with one or no TV channels which suggests that exposure to gender stereotypes from the TV increase sex typed views.

Answer 48

Gender roles are influenced by the media, family, environment and society. A child’s understanding of gender roles impacts how they socialise with their peers and form relationships. Many children have a firm sense of their gender identity, while some children can experience gender identity along a continuum. The media is important in communicating gender stereotypes. The media portrays males as dependent, directive and pursuing engaging occupations and activities and females portrayed as dependent, unambitious and emotional so it exposes children to models of gender appropriate behaviour. The media provides information about likely outcomes of behaviours and an individuals self efficacy will increase if the outcomes are portrayed as positive. Parents reinforce behaviour they think is gender appropriate for children and encourage gender based behaviour, this is done through differential reinforcement where children are rewarded for gender appropriate behaviour but not rewarded for other behaviours for example parents reward girls by giving them attention when behaving femininely but not rewarded if behaving in masculine way leads to reinforcement of feminine behaviour. Parents might punish their children for showing the opposite gender behaviour which makes them unlikely to repeat the behaviour. Gender development is also influenced through school environments because it provides the environment for children to interact which leads to peer influence. Teachers are also a form of influence and are likely to reinforce gender appropriate behaviours and aspirations and can act as role models which increases the influence on gender development. Sex role stereotypes are shared expectations within society or a social group regarding what’s appropriate behaviour for men and women. Roles are behaviours individuals show in a particular situation, which is affected by expectations for example males being heroic and females caring for children or elderly relatives. Sex role stereotypes are learned from birth, as children are exposed to attitude of their parents and others in society. A03: The research evidence for the influence of media on gender stereotypes comes from correlation analyses so people who watch more TV hold a stronger gender-stereotyped views doesn’t necessarily show that TV is the cause of these attitudes. An alternative explanation for correlation is highly gender stereotyped children who watch more TV as confirms the world view. Most correlations found that between TV and gender stereotyping is weak suggesting that media is not particularly influential. The research has lead to pressure on broadcasters to alter TV shows to stop reinforcing gender stereotypes in order to alter such attitude has in society for example pingree found that when children were shown commercials in which women were in non traditional roles, stereotyping is reduced. It could be done more frequently in regular broadcasting in order to weaken or change gender stereotypes. There is vast research support for the row of parents in reinforcing gender role for example Smith and Lloyd found that mothers who selected gender appropriate toys for children for example dolls for girls or squeaky hammers for boys and responded more actively when a boy showed increased motor activity (a typically masculine skill) , showing the role of differential reinforcement in gender development. A criticism of social models is they are ‘a developmental’: which suggests the processes of learning gender appropriate behaviours are the same at all ages so research shows the processes by which individuals learn change with age, something which cognitive developmental theories provide a better explanation for. Cognitive developmental theories are also a better explanation as to why children adhere to only same sex stereotypes and ignore opposite sex schemas. There is research support for the role of scholastic environments as the driving the force behind gender development. Perry and Bussey found that children who imitate behaviour of same sex models like teachers as long as the behaviour wasn’t inconsistent with gender stereotypes which shows that teachers are influential towards gender development, though the effects of modelling can be limited by pre existing gender stereotypes. Despite the evidence showing the influence of parents, maccoby and jacklin found no significant differences in the extent to which boys and girls were reinforced for aggressiveness or autonomy, two things which vary between genders. Studies have found few gender differences in terms of parental warmth, discipline, or encouragement of achievement or dependency and the findings refute the influence of parents in establishing gender roles. Some psychologists hold the view that peers are the most important social agents of gender development, and there’s a large amount of research evidence that demonstrates the importance of peers, as Lamb and Roopnarine found that pre school children simply reinforce gender role stereotypes rather than creating new ones which suggests that peers are less important to gender development in early childhoods. There is evidence that suggests that exposure to tv increases gender stereotypes as Williams found that children in a Canadian town with access to multiple TV channels had more strongly sex types views than children in towns with one or no TV channels which suggests that exposure to gender stereotypes from the TV increase sex typed views.

Answer 49

Anger management has an advantage that the treatment can be administered outside of the institutional setting as well as inside. The focus of anger management is different as it concentrates more on cognitive factors that may influence offending behaviour. Anger management is a therapeutic programme that involves identifying signs that trigger anger as well as learning techniques to calm down and deal with a situation in a positive way. The aim of anger mangent isn’t to prevent anger but to recognise it and manage it. Anger management is offered in prison to encourage self awareness and facilitate rehabilitation. Novaco suggest that people who get aroused find that anger helps them to feel in control of a situation in such cases no attempt should be made to stop them from feeling angry but should be taught how to control and manage anger. Cognitive factors trigger emotional arousal which generally preceded aggressive acts and these people also need to learn how to deal with conflict situations like flight without resorting to aggression. So anger management means bad behaviour in prisons will decrease as will rates of recidivism. Behaviourists would argue that becoming angry is reinforced by an individuals feeling of control in that situation such anger management programmes are a form of cognitive behavioural therapy where an individual is taught how to recognise when they’re losing control and encouraged to develop techniques that being about conflict resolution without the need for violence. Ireland conducted an investigation of whether anger management course work. It was a natural experiment that compared a group of 50 prisoners who completed calm and a group of 37 assessed as suitable, but not actually taking the course. Prisoners who completed CALM rated themselves lower on an anger questionnaire and were rated lower by prison officers, than in the control group. 92% showed improvement on at least one measure of aggression and anger. So in conclusion the short term seemed effective, but there’s no reoffending data. Ainsworth suggest they should be run as group sessions with offenders and usually contain three stages. The first stage is cognitive preparation this phase requires an offender to reflect on past experiences and consider the typical pattern go ange. The offender learns to identify situations which act as triggers to anger and the offender interprets the event as irrational and the therapists role is to make this clear for example the offender may view someone looking at them/partner as confrontation. In redefining a situation as non threatening so therapist is attempting to break what may be an automatic response for the offender. The second stage is skill acquisition at this stage the offenders are introduced to range of techniques and skills to help them deal with anger provoking situations rationally and effectively. The techniques may be cognitive: positive self talk which encourage calmness, behavioural, assertiveness training in how to communicate effectively and physiological methods of relaxation and meditation. The latter particularly promotes the idea that it’s possible for the offender to be in control of their emotions and not rules but them. The third stage is application practises which is the final phase where offenders are given the opportunity to practise skills within a carefully monitored environment. The role play likely involves the offender and therapist reenacting scenarios that maybe escalated feelings of anger an acts of violence in the past. It requires an amount of commitment from the offender so they must see the scenario as real and it also require an amount of bravery from the therapist who winds up the offender so to assess the progress and this successful negotiation of role play would be with positive reinforcement from the therapist. A03: Anger management only works in short term, lack of re-offending data means that we don’t know if the effects last as it’s very different role playing controlling anger to controlling anger once they’re outside of the prison. But anger management is likely to lead to a permanent change in behaviour than behaviour modification programmes like token economies and focuses on changing the way the offender thinks and behaves. Julia keener et al studied the progress made with young offenders at 17 and 21 years who took part in a nationally recognised programme. It was devised oil 1992 and updated in 1995 it was a nationally anger management package developed by England and Wales prison service. The course comprised of 8 two hour sessions and the first 7 were over 3 weeks with the last session or month afterwards and the content broadly accords with which is described and the initial issues in terms of offenders not taking the course seriously and the individuals forgetting routines like the requirement to bring a diary. They found the outcomes were generally positive as the offenders reported an increased awareness of anger management difficulties and an increased capacity to exercise self control. It suggest that the programme to an extent is beneficial for the offenders as they became more aware of anger issues and were able to develop their own self control. Anger management is limited in it’s application as not all crime it motivated by anger as for example crimes for financial gain, so the offenders wouldn’t benefit from any form of CBT, as they’re logical. But it works on a number of different level for example it includes cognitive preparation for example it includes cognitive preparation that helps to identify what leads to anger in the fist phase and in the second phase it’s behavioural element which involves developing techniques of self management and in the third phase the demonstrations of what’s been learnt in the role play where the social approach can be seen. It suggest that anger management is a multidisciplinary approach that acknowledges that offending is complex and social and psychological activity and uses electric approach of different elements to address the problem and there is an implication of this because if it transfers to the outside world may help to reduce recidivism. Anger management is very and time consuming as it requires highly skilled therapists and the prisoner must be motivated and want to change. There is also a cause and effect issue which gives us the question does anger actually cause offeding? Loza and loza fanous found no significant link between anger and violent/non violent offences. Anger management is an eclectic approach that uses cognitive approach in stage 1, the behavioural approach in stage 2 and the social approach in stage 3. It recognises that offending behaviour is the complex interaction between social and psychological factors.

Answer 50

Restorative justice is a system for dealing with criminal behaviour that focuses on rehabilitation for offenders through reconciliation with the victims. It enables the offender to see the impact of the crime and serves to empower the victims by giving them a voice. It’s relatively new scheme but not a new idea and involves offenders coming face to face with people or a person they’ve offended against. The victims may be very sensitive ne it needs to be carefully managed but if it’s done properly restorative justice can be a big step forward in an offenders rehabilitation and it may help the victim to put the incident behind them and move on. Crimes have victims and victims feel experiences have expectations that aren’t taken into account by the justice system and restorative justice aims to change this crimes and is seen being against the person/organisation and victims are allowed to be part of what happens. Restorative justice is voluntary for all parties and seeks a positive outcome, it’s respectful and not degrading for the offender/ victim. Restorative justice has a long history in the past for getting revenge and compensation. The sharla law (Muslim law) is based on the Koran and is dispensed by the elders who decide the amount of compensation that the victim/victims family are entitled to which suggest that the system works better than the UK system as here we have the fullest prison in the wild because we feed criminals and they become fatter and they do crimes again and the experience may be something they can offer to the country’s penal system so restorative justice is tough for victims and offenders. The offenders face up to the consequences of their actions but the victims may be forced to relive the frightening and upsetting experiences. Restorative justice is the process of managed collaboration between the offender and victim based on the related principles of healing and empowerment. The supervised meeting between two parties organised is attended by a training mediator, the victim is given the opportunity to confront the offender and explain how the incident affected them and the offender sees the consequences of their actions, emotional distress caused which is an important part of the rehabilitation process. The restorative justice programmes can be quite diverse but most of them share key features like the focus on acceptance of responsibility and positive change for people who harm others and less emphasis on punishment. It’s not restricted to courtrooms survivors as the term victims is avoided and those responsible for harm may voluntarily chose to meet face to face in a non courtroom setting. Other relevant community members may also have a role in the process which is active rather than passive involvement of all parties in process wherever possible they focus on the positive outcomes for survivors and those who’ve engaged in wrongdoing. The variations in the process is that not all restorative programmes involve face to face encounters between the offender and the victim. The offender may occasionally make some financial restitution to the victim which may reflect psychological damage done or actual physical damage done in the case of for example a break in. The variations of the scheme may involve the offender reporting damaged property themselves, restorative justice is also flexible and can function as alternatives to prison especially if the offender is young as an add on to community service or as an incentive that may lead to reduction of existing sentence. The RJC ( restorative justice council) is an independent body whose role is to establish clear standards for the use of restorative justice/ restorative practice as the RJC refers to it and support the victim and specialist professionals in the field. RJC advocates the use of restorative practice in preventing and managing the conflict in many areas including schools, children services, workplaces hospitals and communities as well as prison. A03: But it’s not available to all offenders, only those who have admitted the crime but the victims may reject the offer and it can’t be a global solution. Sherman and strang conducted a review on evidence on how effective restorative justice is the data was from 36 British and foreign studies that compared restorative and conventional justice analysed. The restorative group recidivism reduced amongst the adult and younger offenders and victims reported reduced PTSD symptoms less need for revenge and more satisfaction with process so there’s strong evidence that restorative justice is effective and should be put to broader use. Restorative justice considers the needs of the victim and how to help them so they are But psychological harm may be brought to be the victim especially if the criminal shoes no empathy towards them they may result in lowered self esteem. There are methodological issues when reviewing research on recidivism as different studies define the concept in different ways as most estimates are based on statistics with rates of reconviction but as these rely on detection of crime in the first place arrest of the offender and successful prosecution may underestimate the true figure. Other studies rely on the offender to self report their problems as they depend on accurate recall and honesty the duration of follow up studies may be a confounding factor. Recidivism studies include the date from one to two years following the release like a burglary down fisher found that reconviction rates for sexual offences is doubled if follow up studies carried out between five and twenty years after the initial offence. A problem though is that victims may attempt to shame the offender which isn’t the aim of the process and could be very damaging to the offender particularly if they’re already feeling guilt and shame for their crime. It’s expensive as Joanna shapland conducted a 7 year government funded a research project and concluded that for every £1 spent on restorative justice could save the criminal justice system £8 through reduced reoffending have to remember that meeting between the offender and victim will often be an emotionally charged affair. It requires an input of skilled and an experienced individual to act as a mediator and specialist professionals who are trained in matter which is likely to be expensive and rare. There are high dropout rates as the offender/victim may lose their nerve before a scheduled meeting and may withdraw from the scheme which means in practice it may not always be the best and most cost effective solution. There is a degree of flexibility in the programmes that can be administered unlike custodial sentencing and the term itself covers a wide range of possible applications including schools and hospitals which is positive because it means that the schemes can be adapted and tailored to the needs of the individuals situation. There’s a drawback because it presents difficulties in terms of drawing general conclusions on the effectiveness of the approach.

Answer 51

Therapies based on the principles of operant conditioning aim to bring about specific changes in behaviour aka behaviour modification involves rewarding ‘appropriate’ behaviour and withholding rewards for ‘inappropriate’ behaviour. Behaviour modification along with anger management is one of several schemes that may form part of the custodial sentence, the aim of programmes if to effectively manage and monitor offenders during a sentence as well as reduce the likelihood that they’ll reoffend after they’ve been released. Behaviour modification takes the form of token economy. Token economy is based on operant conditioning and involves reinforcing desirable behaviour with a token that can be exchanged for a reward and within prison the desirable behaviour likely includes avoiding conflict following prison rules and keeping ones cell orderly. Prisoners are given a token each time they perform a desirable behaviour. Tokens are a secondary reinforcers because they derive values from association with a reward. Rewards also vary according to each institution but may include exchanging tokens for a phone call to a loved one or time in the gym or cigarettes or food. Desirable behaviour thats identified like avoiding confrontation and it’s broken down into small steps called increments and a baseline to measure is established. Behaviours to be reinforced are decided upon and all those who came into contact with offenders must follow the same regime of selective reinforcement. Prison officers may reinforce a particular prisoner for working positively in a group. The whole programme can be overseen by prison officers who are able to monitor programmes effectiveness on the management of a prison as a whole as well as on the behaviour of individual offenders. Hobbs and holt introduced the token economy programme with young delinquents in three behavioural units, a fourth acted as a control. They observed a significant improvement in a positive behaviour as a result of the introduction of token economy. Allyon found similar effects in an adult prison. A03: There are individual differences as not all prisoners react in the same way to incarceration. Some punishment should fit the individual, not necessarily the crime. Token economies are easy to implement and don’t require specialist training/expense, like other therapies like anger management as all staff must implement them consistently if they are to work. It’s essentially instant therefore in theory it’s more effective so it’s seen as a better solution to other anger management therapies and can be long lasting if done correctly and can change someone’s thought process. The cuts to prison budgets means education, training and therapy aren’t always available or effectively delivered so opportunities for rehabilitation are limited. To reduce recidivism ie reoffending punishment needs to fit the individual as well as the crime and more research is needed into reducing negative psychological effects of imprisonment. The aim should be for offenders to leave prison fully reformed and ready to take on the role of a productive and law abiding citizen. By putting young, inexperienced criminals into a prison environment with older more experienced criminals may mean that the type of education these youngsters get isn’t necessarily the type we would want. Token economies raise ethical issues because is it ethical to withhold ‘privileges’ like watching TV because if a severely disordered person doesn’t do what the nurse thinks is desirable? Are peoples human rights are threatened when the staff can control the access to food and the freedom of movement. Clinton field found that for maximum affect the rewards and frequency of them, needed to be individually tailored to the inmate for example House credits, whilst they work well with year 7 students, a school mug or a pen is hardly going to motivate a year 11 student so it relies on effective rewards and opinions differ on what is a reward.

Answer 52

The psychological effects of custodial sentencing are the negative effects of being imprisoned. These include depression from loneliness and boredom, suicide and self harm particularly at the beginning of incarceration, psychotic disorders for example many prisoners are found to suffer from hallucinations and delusions, anxiety disorders like PTSD. Institutionalisation leads to to a lack of autonomy, conformity to roles and dependency culture. The prison acts as a school for crime, which reinforces the criminal lifestyle and criminal norms,which leads to a high recidivism rates, approximately 70% of young offenders reoffend within two years. An example demonstrating the psychological effects of imprisonment is zimbardos study. By labelling it leads to a loss of social contacts, reduced employability, affecting recidivism rates this could offer a positive psychological effects resulting from opportunities, treatment, rehabilitation, remorse. Suicide rates are higher in prison than in the general populating, as are cases of self harm. If the prisoner suffers with mental health issues before their sentence, this is likely to worsen in prison. Having adapted to the norms and values of prison life, some prisoners find it impossible to cope in the real world on release. Some even commit crimes with the intention of being arrested and returned back to comfort of what they knew in prison. Prisonisation is similar to institutionalisation, some behaviours are unacceptable in the outside world are encouraged and rewarded inside the walls of prison. Prisoners learn to accept the prisoner code in order to survive for example unofficial hierarchy of prisoners. A03: There are individual differences as not all prisoners react in the same way to incarceration. Some punishment should fit the individual, not necessarily the crime. There are alternatives for example community service might be better for low risk offenders so they can keep the job and social contacts. Curt Bartol suggested that prison is ‘brutal, demanding and generally devastating’. Suicide rates are generally 15 times higher than in society in general. Most who are at a risk are young, simple men in the first 24 hours of incarceration. Around 25% of female and 15% of male prisoners have symptoms of psychosis which is a severe mental illness. The cuts to prison budgets mean that education, training and therapy aren’t always available or effectively delivered so the opportunities for rehabilitation are limited. The general arguments against custodial sentences are for example that they do not deter, given to appease the public, simply acts as a retribution. By putting young, inexperienced criminals into a prison environment with older more experienced criminals may mean that the type of education these youngsters get isn’t necessarily the type we would want. But the for arguments of custodial sentencing is the usefulness for example justice is seen to be done, it limits the danger to the public, there’s a possible reform and there’s an opportunity for new skills/ training so prisoners can help better themselves for the future. There is a problem of cause and effect as it’s difficult to show the problems due to imprisonment, for example prisoners with psychiatric conditions may have problems before they’re institutionalised.

Answer 53

Deviance involves breaking society’s norms and values, crime involves breaking the law. Defining crime is problematic as it’s social construct and is heavily reliant on context in which it is set. The crime is seen is an act against the community, it requires legal punishment, the UK law, crime is determined when a guilty act, violates the law. An act is seen as a crime when it’s clear the act is carried out as voluntarily and there was intention. Despite the standpoint, there are numerous problems consider when defining crime, including historical context, cultural context, age and specific circumstances. An important consideration is that as times change, so does the law. Acts which were considered criminal at one point in time aren’t necessarily considers criminal at another point the most pertinent example of this is homosexuality. In the earlier part of the 20th century it was illegal in the UK to commit homosexual act (specifically relations between two men), whereas now it wouldn’t be thought of as it was decriminalised in 1967 under the sexual offences act. Culture is also relevant to how we define crime, particularly as the UK is a very diverse country for example one culture may be accepting of polyamorous marriage. However being married more than once is illegal under section 57 of offences against the person act in 1861. It also unlawful for permanent UK residents to take children out of the UK to have the procedure carried out. The FGM act in 2003 replaced the prohibition of the female circumcision act in 1985 and the maximum penailiyy increased from 5 to 14 years in prison, as a clear deterrent to those who looking to practise it. It’s also worth noting that across the world, different countries exercise different laws for example homosexuality is illegal in an estimated 74 countries and in 13 of those it’s punishable by death so it’s important to consider cultural relativism when defining crimes because it highlights how laws differ in different cultures. Age is another issue which affects defining of crime because the age at which an individual is considered legally responsible is debated for example if a three year old child took something off the shelf in a shop and left without the parent having noticed them taking it it leaves the question would it be considered a crime? Technically it’s stealing but you wouldn’t suggest that the child is criminally responsible because of their age. Of course this is reasonable within this specific example, but what about when the child is 7 or 10 years old. When do they actually know that they’re breaking the law? A03: Definitions of crime change over time for example a parents right to smack their own child was outlawed in 2004. A more recent example of legal changes concerns child discipline: section 58 of cyber children act 2004 stipulates it’s unlawful to hit a child under 3 where it’s not in context of ‘’reasonable [parental] punishment’’ and where the mark of some description may be left on the child it constitutes grievous or actually bodily harm. Offender surveys give us an insight of how many people are responsible so a group/ individual and this way we can gain more information and learn more about the person/people. Another way of considering this issue is the way that technological advantages have resulted in new forms of crime that previously didn’t have legal framework, for example in the form of identity theft and cybercrime. In the UK the age of criminal responsibility is 10, previously it was 8. So it means that a 10 year old can be tried in court as the legal system regards them as having a sufficient understanding to tell the difference between right and wrong. It makes sense, in theory is still poses a discussion when very serious crimes are committed by young children. The most notorious example in the UK is James Bulger, who was murdered by Robert Thompson and Jon venables, who were both 10 at the time. The severity of the crime caused outcry, but prompted the discussion of who was really to blame, boys or difficult backgrounds. It it was the latter, that would add a further question mark to the age of criminal responsibility: were they emotionally mature enough to know that what they were doing was so seriously wrong? Police priorities distort official statistics so police in Nottinghamshire are more likely to report that under £10 which spikes the crimes rates in the area. Blackburn argues that the defining feature of crime is that it should be seen as ‘’ conscious rule breaking’’ in short when people know that what they are doing is wrong and yet choose to do it anyway. It’s a multidisciplinary approach so they all have issues with reliability and validity so we must carefully scrutinise and interpret the best results is the combination of all for the greater insights to offending. But what’s considered crime and how the act is dealt with varies from culture to culture and almost all research in forensic psychology can be considered ethnocentric as it’s only relevant to the culture where research was carried out for example bigamy is illegal in the UK but not in all cultures and the age of criminal responsibility it 10 in England and Wales but it’s 8 in Scotland being raised to 12 and 14 in most other European countries.

Answer 54

Some cases especially when we take an example of serial killers or rapists, police are able to gradually build picture based upon the information gathered build the picture based upon information gathered from crime scenes. There is often slim evidence that has lead to the patterns of behaviour being detected and help has lead to the offenders capture aka offender profiling it’s also known as typology yet the aim of offender profiling isn to solve the crime on its own rather narrow the field so police know what they’re looking for. The job of a criminal profiler is to put together the picture of the offender from evidence at the crime scene/other sources. Holmes and Holmes identified three main goals of profiling. The social and psychological assessment information on personality, age, race, sex, employment, education and marital status. The possessions may associate the offender with the crime scene like souvenirs from the crime scene photos and pornography. One the profile is the built the profiler is responsible for developing questioning techniques for the offender once in custody as they’ll have ideas on how to draw out the required information. The top down approach was created by the FBI in 1978 it’s essential when profiling and used by the police to input information about the crime into pre existing templates of information from the crime, crime scene and what they know about the offender all go in. It’s based upon in depth interviews with convicted murderers with convicted murder weed and detailed information from behavioural science unit classification system from several serous crimes including rape and murder like the ted Bundy and Charles Manson case. It eventuall lead to hazelwood and Douglas in the case of lust murders to classified murders as either disorganised/organised both these typologies can be inferred from the crime scene. An organised offender has a list of qualities that include: an orderly life, they kills after experiencing a critical event on their life, their actions reflect planning and control, they tend to bring restraints or weapons to the crime scene, they leave few clues, they’re more likely to use a verbal approach with the victims, have a high or above average intelligence, socially and sexually competent,employed may be married and have children. A disorganised offender is very different and pretty much the complete opposite as their qualities include: committed crime in the heat of the moment, the crimes display no planning or thought, the crime scene will likely have blood, semen, fingerprints and the murder weapon left behind, they’ll have a low IQ, impulsive, socially incompetent, tend to live alone or have a history of sexual dysfunction and failed relationships, they’re unskilled workers or unemployed and live close to the murder site. There are four main stages to the construction of an FBI profile. The first stage is data assimilation where profilers review evidence from the crime scene, photos, pathology reports where they can use this information to extract an idea of what the murderer is like. The second stage is crime scene classification where they can decide if the murderer is organised or disorganised. The third stage is crime reconstruction where they can hypothesise in terms of how the murderer committed in terms of the sequence of events, the victims actions and the offenders actions. The final stage is profile generation this is where they create hypotheses related to all aspects of the likely offender and their life ie the demographic background, physical characteristics, behaviours and personality type. Then this is applied to a list of prime suspects and this is used to narrow down the search which is more effective. Modern forensics is helpful here in not only proving the persons guilt but it’s profiling that enables them to be found in the first place. Douglas explained when there’s a mix of these type it’s normally caused by more than one offender and an escalation of the situation and the actions of the victim is forcing change in the approach. A03: However it often only applies to one type of crime namely violent crimes and rape and other crimes require different applications and there’s only a very limited range of crimes that are suitable for this type of profiling ie repeated successful murderer who have no direct connection to the victims. As horrific as cases such as John Duffy are they are very rare. But this system is still widely used and found to be effective so it’s beneficial and has helped criminals to be convicted and gives us further information to stop an offender earlier so that they don’t hurt people/ person again. Because it uses qualitative data it gives us an insight to criminals to further help with investigations and make sure we can catch them earlier. But canter et al suggest that the top down approach is too simplistic to reduce the types of criminals to only two while Douglas added the mix typology this isn’t necessarily the solution to the problem. Suggesting that the top down profiling tends to be more based on intuition/ hunch rather than objective methods that could lead to bias in interpretation of evidence and this is a problem because it reduces the scientific basis of top down profiling. Canter et al are also the criminal psychologists from the John Duffy case has after review of 100 murders supported the organised category yet found that the disorganised wasn’t supported being for to diverse than allowed for a single category. The original sample is limited to 36 US killers, 25 of them are the rarest type a serial killer (killed more than 3 people) so canter points out that the data self report isn’t the most reliable method. Alison et al suggests that the personality theory element of theories is outdated and not inline with modern theories of personality which is seen to be driven by stable internal personality traits that are hard wired. Modern theories recognise the role of environmental factors and the personal development and better explain altering the behaviour for example duffys move from raping and ditching to raping and killing showing that profiling needs to be updated as it frequently lacks validity due to the static nature of the profiling system. A limitation of the approach is it’s primarily applicable to one type of crime being sexual assaults which also meant that most of the offenders concerned are male which causes a gender bias in the approach as research focuses primarily on male offenders organised and disorganised and a female offender may have different characteristics.

Answer 55

Some cases especially when we take examples of serial killers or rapists, the police are able to gradually build a picture based upon information gathered from the crime scenes. There is often slim evidence to lead to patterns of behaviour being detected and can help lead to the offenders capture aka offender profiling it’s also known as typology yet the aim of offender profiling isn to solve the crime on its own rather narrow the field so police know what they’re looking for. The job of a criminal profiler is to put together the picture of the offender from evidence at the crime scene/other sources. Holmes and Holmes identified three main goals of profiling. The social and psychological assessment information on personality, age, race, sex, employment, education and marital status. The possessions may associate the offender with the crime scene like souvenirs from the crime scene photos and pornography. One the profile is the built the profiler is responsible for developing questioning techniques for the offender once in custody as they’ll have ideas on how to draw out the required information. The bottom up approach in model the data drives the formation of a profile rather than having set profiles assigned. The forces are deeper and a more rigorous investigation by the police to collect every piece of data available and it’s used to build a picture (jigsaw approach). Investigative psychology attempts to use the psychological theory with statistics to create a suitable profile for the offender based upon the actions which are Some cases especially when we take examples of serial killers or rapists, the police are able to gradually build a picture based upon information gathered from the crime scenes. There is often slim evidence to lead to patterns of behaviour being detected and can help lead to the offenders capture aka offender profiling it’s also known as typology yet the aim of offender profiling isn to solve the crime on its own rather narrow the field so police know what they’re looking for. The job of a criminal profiler is to put together the picture of the offender from evidence at the crime scene/other sources. Holmes and Holmes identified three main goals of profiling. The social and psychological assessment information on personality, age, race, sex, employment, education and marital status. The possessions may associate the offender with the crime scene like souvenirs from the crime scene photos and pornography. One the profile is the built the profiler is responsible for developing questioning techniques for the offender once in custody as they’ll have ideas on how to draw out the required information. against on existing database of statistical information which is the baseline for comparison. It enables the police to recognise if a series of events is connected in some way. Dwyer said that a key part is the way that the offender behaves as to how they interact with the victims may be reflected in how they interact with others in a normal everyday life ie some may seek to maintain maximum control while others are more apologetic which may indicate how they interact with people normally. The time and place is always significant as it shows habits and time limitations of the offender. Dump sites and levels of forensic awareness is also another factor to be considered showing level of thought and specialist knowledge that the killer has. Canters work is partially based on some key assumptions about interactions between offenders and victims. The first is interpersonal coherence so there’s a consistency between the way the offenders interact with victims and with others in everyday life. The second is time and place so the time and location of the offenders crime will communicate something about their own place of residence/employment. The third is criminal characteristics so the characteristics about the offender can help to classify them which helps the police investigation. Another is the criminal career so crimes that tend to be committed in a similar fashion by offenders and can provide indication of how the criminals activity will develop. Finally, forensic awareness so offenders who show an understanding of the police investigation are likely to have previous encounters with the criminal justice system and with these principles in mind the bottom up profilers can build a picture of the offender often by also using other techniques which are usually statistical which enables them to objectively analyse evidence. Geographical profiling is a form of bottom up profiling and can take a particular note of principle of the time and place. Canter and youngs identified that there are a number of telling clues regarding the place where crimes are committed in relation to the offender. The principles of geographical profiling are: locatedness so in any violent crime there may be several locations relevant for example the offender may meet the victim, attack, dispose etc in different locations so all locations are part of building an accurate picture, the next is systematic crime location choice so the assumption that crime scenes aren’t random and that the offender will likely have some kind of connection with the area/ at least familiarity, the next is centrality as crime scenes are likely to occur in a familiar area to the offender which means the crime scenes tend to cluster and there are two types of offender that can require further analysis the first being commuters who will travel from home to the crime scene and marauders who will commit offences close to home, finally comparative case analysis so the assumption that crimes are being committed by the same offender and therefore increases the precision of geographical profiling. A03: There are mixed results so cases where the profile has been very useful like in the John Duffy case but since then there’s also been cases where the offender managed to kill or rape again due to having been ruled out by profile so the case of Robert napper was ruled out by being too tall which is just one such case. Lundrigon and canter supports geographical profiling and they looked at 120 US murder cases revealing the behaviour to be consistent with two categories showing that the centre of gravity effect caused by the home base when looking at pick up and dump sites. Canter and heritage looked at 66 case reviews using content analysis programme called the smallest space analysis sort to identify correlations across the data on behavioural patterns of offenders. It’s established that there are common characteristics such as the use of impersonal language and lack of reaction to the suffer of the victim. It helps the police to understand the mind set of serial killers and to catch them quicker supporting the bottom up theory adding to another price to the jigsaw puzzle. Copson et al found that despite it being deemed useful in 83% of cases it was in fact only responsible for the correct identification in just 3% of those cases so it’s not 100% accurate. But it does use a logical scientific approach of developing theories based upon evidence rather than imposing the profile from a set theory they’re building a profile. Kocsis et al showed up criminal profilers by getting chemistry students to come up with a more accurate profile than them. It’s been used for a wider range of crimes ie thefts and burglary which is much more common and can also be solved using this method which is something the top down approach can’t do. There is a real life application as canters profile results in the successful arrest of John Duffy and due to the capture it lead to the eventual arrest of the accomplice charged with 7 rapes and 3 murders so canter has helped put a stop to violent activity and canters theory can be applied to historical cases and manages to measure up which suggests some representativeness to a particular case.

Answer 56

Some cases especially when we take examples of serial killers or rapists, the police are able to gradually build a picture based upon information gathered from the crime scenes. There is often slim evidence to lead to patterns of behaviour being detected and can help lead to the offenders capture aka offender profiling it’s also known as typology yet the aim of offender profiling isn to solve the crime on its own rather narrow the field so police know what they’re looking for. The bottom up approach in model the data drives the formation of a profile rather than having set profiles assigned. The forces are deeper and a more rigorous investigation by the police to collect every piece of data available and it’s used to build a picture (jigsaw approach). Investigative psychology attempts to use the psychological theory with statistics to create a suitable profile for the offender based upon the actions which are matched against on existing databases of statistical information which is a baseline for comparison. It enables the police to recognise if a series of events is connected in some way. Dwyer said that a key part is the way that the offender behaves as to how they interact with the victims may be reflected in how they interact with others in a normal everyday life ie some may seek to maintain maximum control while others are more apologetic which may indicate how they interact with people normally. The time and place is always significant as it shows habits and time limitations of the offender. Dump sites and levels of forensic awareness is also another factor to be considered showing level of thought and specialist knowledge that the killer has. The top down approach starts with the big picture and fills in the details, it relies on previous experiences of crimes, in the 1979s the FBIs behavioural science unit gathered data from 36 sexually motivated serial killers, Charles and Manson and ted bundy to develop an approach to offender profiling. In 1980 hazelwood and Douglas published an account of a ‘lust murderer’, the advanced theory of lust murderers is mainly categorised by two types organised and disorganised which is an example of top down typology. The organised offender leads an ordered life and kills after some sort of critical life event. The actions are premeditated and planned, they’re likely to bring weapons and restraints to the scene. They are likely to be average to high intelligence and employed, whereas the disorganised offender is likely to have committed a crime in a moment of passion, there is no evidence of premeditation and they’re more likely to leave evidence like blood, semen, murder weapon behind etc and the offender is thought to be less socially competent and is likely unemployed. An early biological explanation proposed that criminals are sub species of genetic throwbacks that can’t conform to the rules of modern society. Such individuals are distinguishable by particular facial and cranial characteristics these atavistic characteristics are large jaws, forward projection of jaw, low sloping forehead, high cheekbones, facial asymmetry, flattened or upturned nose, handle shaped ears, hawk like noses or fleshy lips, hard shifty eyes and scanty beard or baldness other features include insensitivity to pain, long arms relative to lower limbs, darker skin, extra nipples or toes, often tattooed familiar with criminal slang and often unemployed. There is successive research and a more thorough statistical analysis as lombroso modified theories he continued to refine atavistic characteristics and identified that murderers had blood shot eyes, curly hair and long ears, sexual deviants, glinting eyes, swollen fleshy lips and projecting ears, fraudsters are thin and reedy meaning highly flexible. A03: The bottom up approach has mixed results in cases where the profile is very useful in John Duffy but since then there’s also been cases where the offender managed to kill or rape again due to having been ruled out by profile like the case of Robert napper who was ruled out by being tall. Lundrigon and canter supports geographical profiling and they looked at 120 US murder cases revealing the behaviour to be consistent with two categories showing that the centre of gravity effect caused by the home base when looking at pick up and dump sites. Canter and heritage looked at 66 case reviews using content analysis programme called the smallest space analysis sort to identify correlations across the data on behavioural patterns of offenders. It’s established that there are common characteristics such as the use of impersonal language and lack of reaction to the suffer of the victim. It helps the police to understand the mind set of serial killers and to catch them quicker supporting the bottom up theory adding to another price to the jigsaw puzzle. With top down profiling Alison et al argues that this approach is based on out dated theories of personality being stable. External, situational factors can be a major influence on offending and they are constantly changing. But it does use a logical scientific approach of developing theories based upon evidence rather than imposing the profile from a set theory they’re building a profile. With lombrosos theory he didn’t compare criminals with non criminals so he had no control groups to measure whether the physical features associated with criminals were found in non criminals. Top down profiling is reductionist as the classification system with organised and disorganised is too simple. Offenders are not simply either disorganised/organised. It may be that both organised and disorganised features to crimes. The offender may start off being disorganised and become more organised as they develop. Top down typology can only be applied to sexually motivated serial killer because of the limitations of the original sample that they interviewed sexually motivated serial killers.

Answer 57

An early biological explanation proposed that criminals are sub species of genetic throwbacks that can’t conform to the rules of modern society. Such individuals are distinguishable by particular facial and cranial characteristics these atavistic characteristics are large jaws, forward projection of jaw, low sloping forehead, high cheekbones, facial asymmetry, flattened or upturned nose, handle shaped ears, hawk like noses or fleshy lips, hard shifty eyes and scanty beard or baldness other features include insensitivity to pain, long arms relative to lower limbs, darker skin, extra nipples or toes, often tattooed familiar with criminal slang and often unemployed. There is successive research and a more thorough statistical analysis as lombroso modified theories he continued to refine atavistic characteristics and identified that murderers had blood shot eyes, curly hair and long ears, sexual deviants, glinting eyes, swollen fleshy lips and projecting ears, fraudsters are thin and reedy meaning highly flexible. With neural explanations of offending behaviour there are two key neurotransmitters that are seen to have a role in offending behaviour, the first is serotonin and this neurotransmitter has been linked to mood and impulsiveness as moir and Jessel cite that a number of human and animal studies suggest a link between low levels of serotonin and aggression that’s linked to criminal behaviour. Scerbo and raine conducted a meta a meta analysis on 29 pieces of research into anti social adults and children finding all cases with low levels of serotonin. Dopamine is the other neurotransmitter that’s identified and linked to dopamine pathway that results in pleasure which is a rewarding feeling and the desire to repeat certain behaviours which is why dopamine has been linked to addiction and substance abuse and though this it has an indirect link to criminal behaviour. Buitelaar found that juvenile delinquents who are given dopamine antagonists reduce the levels of dopamine showed a decrease in aggressive behaviour. Couppis argues that some individuals who engage in certain criminal behaviours may experience an increase in dopamine and this results in seeking out experiences again due to the rewarding feeling. Price suggested that males with an extra Y chromosome (XYY) super male predisposed towards violent crime. Individuals XYY are above average height and below average intelligence and this might be a latter characteristic as low intelligence accounts for an over representation in prison populations. Christiansen looked at 3586 twin pairs in Denmark with a 52% concordance rate for criminality found for monozygotic twins, compared to 22% for dizygotic twins. We must remember the effects of a shared upbringing and if a crime really was genetic we would expect a 100% concordance rate for monozygotic twins as they share 100% of genes. Reduced levels of dopamine and noradrenaline can cause problems with inappropriate violent and sexual behaviour. Impaired metabolism of serotonin is likely to be responsible for mental retardation and could be linked to agressive behaviour. Brunner studied genetic abnormality commonly known as the ‘ warrior gene’ as it’s associated with excessively violent and aggressive behaviour, it may also lead to crime. Only females carry this condition as it only affects the maoa production gene on single X chromosome in males. This mutation/ abnormality on X chromosome leads to increased levels of MAOA. As MAOA removes neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine and noradrenaline, which leads to lower levels of these neurotransmitters, which can then lead to behavioural problems. In conclusion individuals can inherit genetic conditions which make them prone to offending behaviour. A study used as both genetic and neural explanations and both explanations can be used to justify conclusions drawn by researchers. A03: Lombroso is accused of scientific racism and some characteristics are identified as more prevalent in certain racial groups. This is still an issue today as Eberhardt found that stereotypically ‘black’ looking men are more likely to get the death penalty in the US than those who are less stereotypically black looking, even if they had committed very similar offences. There is support for the diathesis stress model of crime and someone may have biological tendencies towards crime, but they’ll need some sort of environmental trigger in order to actually become a criminal. The biological explanations of offending behaviour have strong support for the nature nurture side of the debate for example research into families and twins suggests some genetic basis for behaviour implications for understanding of offending behaviour. Supporters of the nurture argument argue they ignore the influence of external factors like parenting culture and social learning misses crucial elements of explaining offending behaviour and are considered reductionist. It’s important to consider evidence to support the biological basis for offending behaviour is strong and there are elements to consider that reduce the effectiveness of biological findings. Lombrosos theory lacks temporal validity and it’s a child of it’s time when eugenic theories were very popular and now couldn’t be used or applied to new methods as it’s outdated. Neurochemical explanations are criticised for being overly simplistic as the links between abnormal levels of certain neurotransmitter and offending behaviour are centre around violent and aggressive behaviour but doesn’t explain all types of crime which is important because it means it lacks the complexity necessary to understand why certain individuals commit crimes like burglary/ drug dealing that aren’t necessarily violent/ agressive in nature. Lombroso also didn’t compare criminals with non criminals so he had no control groups to measure whether the physical features associated with criminals were found in non criminals. There is a criticism of neural explanations being reductionists for example researchers look at the way neurotransmitter/ brain region contributes to offending behaviour overlooking important factors like how the environment might have an impact on areas as well and such researchers might argue that to reductionist allows straightforward investigation to be conducted would be nearly impossible to disentangle all possible explanations and interactions and to investigate them scientifically it’s important to consider as while reducing the complex behaviour to the simplest form which requires researchers to overlook key factors which is essential for good scientific practice. There are physical differences as lombroso discovered that it’s much more likely to be the result of other factors like poverty, poor diet, illness and disease and isn’t related to criminal behaviour or offending in general and could be considered a generalisation of criminal habits.

Answer 58

Price suggested that males with an extra Y chromosome (XYY) super male predisposed towards violent crime. Individuals XYY are above average height and below average intelligence and this might be a latter characteristic as low intelligence accounts for an over representation in prison populations. Christiansen looked at 3586 twin pairs in Denmark with a 52% concordance rate for criminality found for monozygotic twins, compared to 22% for dizygotic twins. We must remember the effects of a shared upbringing and if a crime really was genetic we would expect a 100% concordance rate for monozygotic twins as they share 100% of genes. Reduced levels of dopamine and noradrenaline can cause problems with inappropriate violent and sexual behaviour. Impaired metabolism of serotonin is likely to be responsible for mental retardation and could be linked to agressive behaviour. With neural explanations of offending behaviour there are two key neurotransmitters that are seen to have a role in offending behaviour, the first is serotonin and this neurotransmitter has been linked to mood and impulsiveness as moir and Jessel cite that a number of human and animal studies suggest a link between low levels of serotonin and aggression that’s linked to criminal behaviour. Scerbo and raine conducted a meta a meta analysis on 29 pieces of research into anti social adults and children finding all cases with low levels of serotonin. Dopamine is the other neurotransmitter that’s identified and linked to dopamine pathway that results in pleasure which is a rewarding feeling and the desire to repeat certain behaviours which is why dopamine has been linked to addiction and substance abuse and though this it has an indirect link to criminal behaviour. Buitelaar found that juvenile delinquents who are given dopamine antagonists reduce the levels of dopamine showed a decrease in aggressive behaviour. Couppis argues that some individuals who engage in certain criminal behaviours may experience an increase in dopamine and this results in seeking out experiences again due to the rewarding feeling. Brunner studied genetic abnormality commonly known as the ‘ warrior gene’ as it’s associated with excessively violent and aggressive behaviour, it may also lead to crime. Only females carry this condition as it only affects the maoa production gene on single X chromosome in males. This mutation/ abnormality on X chromosome leads to increased levels of MAOA. As MAOA removes neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine and noradrenaline, which leads to lower levels of these neurotransmitters, which can then lead to behavioural problems. In conclusion individuals can inherit genetic conditions which make them prone to offending behaviour. A study used as both genetic and neural explanations and both explanations can be used to justify conclusions drawn by researchers. With neurophysiology and offending behaviour there are specific parts of the brain that are highlighted as important terms of criminal behaviour including: the amygdala which is part of the limbic system, regarded as an older region of the brain in an evolutionary sense, no surprise as many of the structures within the limbic system are seen to have some sort of survival benefit. The amygdala in particular is identified as a structure with links to emotion regulations and aggression. The frontal lobe is also important in terms of criminal behaviour and is part of the neocortex which is linked higher functions like social behaviours and planning and brower and price found a link between frontal lobe dysfunction and violent crime and kandel and Freed looked at frontal lobe damage and any social behaviour, finding that it was the tendency for such individuals to exhibit emotional instability, a failure to consider the consequences of their actions or to adapt their behaviour in response to external cues and these traits are a result of impaired functioning in the frontal lobes. A03: Neurochemical explanations are criticised for being overly simplistic as the links between abnormal levels of certain neurotransmitter and offending behaviour are centre around violent and aggressive behaviour but doesn’t explain all types of crime which is important because it means it lacks the complexity necessary to understand why certain individuals commit crimes like burglary/ drug dealing that aren’t necessarily violent/ agressive in nature. The use of scientific method and scientific equipment for example PET scans validate the research and make it more scientific which leads to better accuracy and makes the research more reliable and trustworthy. The biological explanations of offending behaviour have strong support for the nature nurture side of the debate for example research into families and twins suggests some genetic basis for behaviour implications for understanding of offending behaviour. Supporters of the nurture argument argue they ignore the influence of external factors like parenting culture and social learning misses crucial elements of explaining offending behaviour and are considered reductionist. There are example of criticisms case of jim fallon who has the brain of a serial killer as he has low activity in his prefrontal cortex and a defective version of the MAOA gene but he isn’t a serial killer which is something he attributes to a fabulous childhood and supportive family so this is a case of nurture over nature. With neurochemical explanations not every criminal has APD (antisocial personality disorder ) or abnormal brain structure so the theories can only explain a small minority of extreme cases everybody has free will so we choose whether to break the law. The genetic explanation has support for the diathesis stress model of crime so someone may have biological tendencies towards crime, but will need some environmental trigger to actually become a criminal so the genetic explanation doesn’t let free will be a reason for criminal behaviour or breaking the law. But both use scientific methods and scientific equipment and both have used case study methods this means that the research is seen as scientific and validates the explanations however a downside to case studies is that we can’t generalise the results from one persons experience to the world population. They are also both reductionist as neural explanations explain crime simply through brain structure which is very reductionist for example researchers look at the way neurotransmitters/ brain regions contribute to offending behaviour overlooking factors like how the environment might’ve an impact on areas as well and crime is complex and the reasons people turn to crime are many and varied. Biological explanations are reductionist because explaining crime simply through genes is very reductionist and it’s important to consider evidence to support the biological basis for offending behaviour is strong and there are elements to consider that reduce the effectiveness of biological findings. But neural explanations look at brain patterns whereas genetics explanations just look at genes and inheritance and does take into account brain chemistry just as neural explanations don’t take into account for genetic influence.

Answer 59

The debate surrounding offending behaviour and the origins have been going on for some time. In the past, researchers have typically looked for biological explanations as little was know about the impact of the environment on social and moral development. The first researcher to take this view is lombroso in the 1870s. He view was there were physical features which offenders had, that indicated they were less developed in an evolutionary sense than the non offenders. Lombroso combined his ideas with Darwin’s theory of evolution to imply that offenders are more primitive and not completely responsive for their criminal actions. Lombroso referred to physical features identified in criminals as an atavistic term as atavism refers to a primitive ancestor. An early biological explanation proposed that criminals are sub species of genetic throwbacks that can’t conform to the rules of modern society. These individuals are distinguishable by particular facial and cranial characteristics as found in a study of 383 dead italien criminals and 3839 living ones ne found that 40% of them had atavistic characteristics. These atavistic characteristics are large jaws, forward projection of jaw, low sloping forehead, high cheekbones, facial asymmetry, flattened or upturned nose, handle shaped ears, hawk like noses or fleshy lips, hard shifty eyes and scanty beard or baldness other features include insensitivity to pain, long arms relative to lower limbs, darker skin, extra nipples or toes, often tattooed familiar with criminal slang and often unemployed. There is successive research and a more thorough statistical analysis as lombroso modified theories he continued to refine atavistic characteristics and identified that murderers had blood shot eyes, curly hair and long ears, sexual deviants, glinting eyes, swollen fleshy lips and projecting ears, fraudsters are thin and reedy meaning highly flexible. A03: Lombroso is accused of scientific racism and some characteristics are identified as more prevalent in certain racial groups. This is still an issue today as Eberhardt found that stereotypically ‘black’ looking men are more likely to get the death penalty in the US than those who are less stereotypically black looking, even if they had committed very similar offences. The early theories did represent the beginning of offender profiling and modern forensic science. Lombroso did also be the champion of the use of scientific method by using an evidence based approach to research,doing hundreds of observations and measurements. Goring found evidence that criminals tended to have lower than average intelligence. But, this may mean that the crime is due to a lack of education rather than any biological factors. Lombrosos theory lacks temporal validity and it’s a child of it’s time when eugenic theories were very popular and now couldn’t be used or applied to new methods as it’s outdated. There are physical differences as lombroso discovered that it’s much more likely to be the result of other factors like poverty, poor diet, illness and disease and isn’t related to criminal behaviour or offending in general and could be considered a generalisation of criminal habits. Lombroso also didn’t compare criminals with non criminals so he had no control groups to measure whether the physical features associated with criminals were found in non criminals so this could have just have been those characteristics that are common in the general population. Kaplan’s ‘’self derogation’’ theory argues that if individuals experience persistently poor interactions with others due to the way they look, they develop lower self esteem and increased frustration with others, more likely to commit criminal behaviour aka the interactionist approach understanding the causes of behaviour argues there’s an interaction between biological aspects of an offenders appearance and the way individuals might be treated, leading to offending behaviour. Lombrosos sampling methods are criticised because of study group consisting of male Sicilian prisoners who all shared similar physical characteristics due to their ethnic makeup this sample group wasn’t matched with a control group from the general population and there’s also gender bias because the sample was male.

Answer 60

With neural explanations of offending behaviour there are two key neurotransmitters that are seen to have a role in offending behaviour, the first is serotonin and this neurotransmitter has been linked to mood and impulsiveness as moir and Jessel cite that a number of human and animal studies suggest a link between low levels of serotonin and aggression that’s linked to criminal behaviour. Scerbo and raine conducted a meta a meta analysis on 29 pieces of research into anti social adults and children finding all cases with low levels of serotonin. Dopamine is the other neurotransmitter that’s identified and linked to dopamine pathway that results in pleasure which is a rewarding feeling and the desire to repeat certain behaviours which is why dopamine has been linked to addiction and substance abuse and though this it has an indirect link to criminal behaviour. Buitelaar found that juvenile delinquents who are given dopamine antagonists reduce the levels of dopamine showed a decrease in aggressive behaviour. Couppis argues that some individuals who engage in certain criminal behaviours may experience an increase in dopamine and this results in seeking out experiences again due to the rewarding feeling. With neurophysiology and offending behaviour there are specific parts of the brain that are highlighted as important terms of criminal behaviour including: the amygdala which is part of the limbic system, regarded as an older region of the brain in an evolutionary sense, no surprise as many of the structures within the limbic system are seen to have some sort of survival benefit. The amygdala in particular is identified as a structure with links to emotion regulations and aggression. The frontal lobe is also important in terms of criminal behaviour and is part of the neocortex which is linked higher functions like social behaviours and planning and brower and price found a link between frontal lobe dysfunction and violent crime and kandel and Freed looked at frontal lobe damage and any social behaviour, finding that it was the tendency for such individuals to exhibit emotional instability, a failure to consider the consequences of their actions or to adapt their behaviour in response to external cues and these traits are a result of impaired functioning in the frontal lobes. Raine et als study aimed to identify brain regions specific to offenders charger with murder/ manslaughter, who pleaded not guilty by reason of sanity. The method consisted of participants 41 murderers (2 female) who were charged with murder or manslaughter and pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity. The researches used PET scanning method to highlight areas of brain activity and the results compared to age and gender matched control group. They found a reduced activity for offender group in areas like the pre frontal cortex and corpus callosum there were abnormalities in activity of the limbic system, including the amygdala and thalamus. In conclusion there is an indication that offenders have abnormal brain function when compared to normal controls. There is largely reduced activity, which suggests that brains of offenders slowed and were unable to make swift decisions to react appropriately in certain situations for example frontal lobes are linked to planning behaviour, perhaps decreased pre frontal cortex activity indicates that offenders are unable to consider the consequences of their actions and control their behaviour. Individuals who experience antisocial personality disorder show reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex which is the part of the brain that regulates emotional behaviour. Raine found an 11% reduction in the volume of grey matter in the prefrontal cortex of people with antisocial personality disorder compared to a control group. Only when criminals were asked to empathise with others did their empathy reactions activate which is controlled by mirror neurons. Suggesting that criminals do experience empathy although it isn’t an automatic response and neurons fire in response to the action of others. A03: Neurochemical explanations are criticised for being overly simplistic as the links between abnormal levels of certain neurotransmitter and offending behaviour are centre around violent and aggressive behaviour but doesn’t explain all types of crime which is important because it means it lacks the complexity necessary to understand why certain individuals commit crimes like burglary/ drug dealing that aren’t necessarily violent/ agressive in nature. The use of scientific method and scientific equipment for example PET scans validate the research and make it more scientific which leads to better accuracy and makes the research more reliable and trustworthy. There is research evidence from the case of Charles Whitman which could be used to support the neural explanation, as after his killing spree, the autopsy revealed a tumour pressing on his amygdala which is suggested to have contributed to his behaviour and emotion. This supports these areas of the brain may be incorporated in criminal behaviour. With neurochemical explanations not every criminal has APD (antisocial personality disorder ) or abnormal brain structure so the theories can only explain a small minority of extreme cases everybody has free will so we choose whether to break the law. The nature of some of the research into neurochemistry and neurophysiology are often correlational which means there’s no clear way to show cause and effect for example low levels of serotonin found in offenders could be the cause of offending behaviour but could also be the effect of it which highlights the complexity of the relationships between biology and behaviour and suggests that a further investigation is required. There is a criticism of neural explanations being reductionists for example researchers look at the way neurotransmitter/ brain region contributes to offending behaviour overlooking important factors like how the environment might have an impact on areas as well and such researchers might argue that to reductionist allows straightforward investigation to be conducted would be nearly impossible to disentangle all possible explanations and interactions and to investigate them scientifically it’s important to consider as while reducing the complex behaviour to the simplest form which requires researchers to overlook key factors which is essential for good scientific practice. There is a debate in discussion of offending behaviour and whether it’s the result of nature or nurture as there is evidence which presents the case for nature, but argument from the nurture perspective shouldn’t be ignored and the interaction between the two shouldn’t be overlooked for example lombrosos theory and research is clear that there is implications for the criminal justice system and if the offenders are, as lombroso argues, not responsible for the crimes how should the be punished if they can’t control their actions due to their physical makeup. If structural brain abnormalities are found in the raine et al study it could be a cause of offending behaviour then there is a problem for biological determinism which could cause problems for the legal system since it negates on free will and raises ethical question surrounding what society does with people who carry criminal genes.

Answer 61

According to eysenck personality is innate and has a biological basis. Personality type is known as criminal personality. Individuals with criminal personality will score highly on measures of extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism. People are seen as difficult to condition and cold and unfeeling and these traits which may explain their criminality. Personality traits include dimensions of extraversion and neuroticism that can be measured using a personality questionnaire. Extroversion refers to a biological need that individuals have for high or low levels or environmental stimulation this is determined by the level of arousal in a persons central nervous system and autonomic nervous system. Which means that people with high levels or extraversion have low level of arousal, meaning that we require more environmental stimulation to fuel excitement. In forensic psychology, environmental stimulation may include criminal behaviour. Introverted people require little environmental stimulation and can often be withdrawn. Neuroticism is the stability of personality and high neuroticism score represent someone more reactive and volatile and perhaps are likely to engage in offending behaviour for example an individual with low levels of neuroticism have a stable nervous system that doesn’t have changeable reactions while a high neuroticism score would represent someone who is more reactive and volatile. Again a high score would be more likely in a person who engages in offending behaviour. With emotional stability if it’s low in neuroticism means an individual is more emotionally stable. Eysenck argued for there being a criminal personality, would characterise people who score highly on these three dimensions. Later, Eysenck added a third personality dimension, psychoticism which is the degree to which somebody is anti social m, aggressive and uncaring. It’s stated that individuals who are high in psychoticism are likely to commit criminal acts but there is as yet no underlying biological mechanism but it’s assumed to be affected by levels of testosterone and serotonin. It’s characterised by cold cruelty, social insensitivity, disliking of others and attraction to the unusual and in eysencks book crime and personality made argument for criminal personality which is seen in people who score highly on these three dimensions. A03: But the idea of one personality type explaining all offending behaviour isn’t very plausible as there are many different types of both crimes and offenders and all criminals aren’t the same. However eysencks theory is useful when it comes to preventing crime as the theory suggest underlying tendencies eventually manifest themselves as criminal behaviour which is detectable in childhood and may be possible to modify socialisation experiences of high risk individuals so they don’t develop into offenders. This could lead to interventions based on parenting or early treatment for delinquency and may be a great practical benefit in reducing criminal behaviour. The evidence that supports the theory that comes from eysencks study of 2070 male prisoners and 2422 male controls. Prisoners who scored higher on extroversion, neuroticism and psychoticism than non criminal controls. Farmington reviewed several studies and found evidence of prisoners scoring higher on measures of psychoticism. The validity of measuring personality through a psychometric test is also questionable, as is the notion that personality is a stable entity as most people argue that personality changes over the years and as a person matures. It’s unclear of the relationship between all three traits and offending behaviour as extraversion isn’t consistently found to relate to criminality suggesting that another factor may be involved it may be the type of crime is a more reliable predictor of whether or not a person is an extravert or not. It’s lacking explanatory power for example howitt points out that while eysencks theory highlights the traits which are related to different types of criminal they don’t explain why they commit the crimes they do which is important because it highlights how personality traits might be useful for identifying individuals at risk but not particularly useful when it comes to rehabilitating such criminals. Eysencks theory is similar to other biological explanations of offending like APD ( antisocial personality disorder) whilst raine explains this through neural differences, Eysenck attributes it to the functioning of the nervous system although eysencks theory is seen as a psychological theory as it focuses on personality, it could also be accused of biological determinism as it sees personality as innate and unchanging. The research is seen as culturally biased as Holanchock studied black and Hispanic criminals in America and found them to be less extroverted than non criminal control groups.

Answer 62

Cognitive explanations focus on mental processes and how they affect offending behaviour. Kohlbergs theory of levels of moral reasoning first developed from the Heinz dilemma; Heinzs wife is dying from type of cancer and there is a new drug that might save her, the drug was discovered by a local chemist and Heinz tried to buy some from the chemist who was charging ten times the money that it cost to make the drug and more than Heinz could afford. Heinz only had half the money and explained to the chemist his wife was dying and asked if the drug could be cheaper or pay the rest of the money later. The chemist refused, saying he discovered the drug and wanted to make money from it, the husband was desperate and so later broke into the chemists and stole the drug. Kohlberg asked questions about the dilemma to children like should Heinz have stolen the drug? And would it change anything if Heinz didn’t love his wife. By studying the answers from children of different ages, kohlberg hoped to discover how moral reasoning changed as people grew older. The sample comprised 72 Chicago boys 10-16 years old, 58 were followed up at 3 years yearly for 20 years and each boy was given a 2 hour interview based on 10 dilemmas. Kohlberg was mainly interested in what was the reasons give for the decision. He found that the reasons that change happens as children got older was identified as 3 distinct levels of moral reasoning: pre conventional, conventional and post conventional. Each level has 2 sub stages and people only pass through levels in order are listed and each new stage replaces the reasoning of an earlier stage. Not everyone achieves all the stages and kohlbergs theory of moral development is applied to many areas including crime as the developmental theory looks at the ways which individuals grow in understanding of moral decision making and behaviour. Kohlberg argued that it happens in stage process moral reasoning becomes more complex and abstract as a child ages. It’s argued that its usually complete by age 9/10 years old which is the age of criminal responsibility in the UK. Level 1 is pre conventional morality where the moral code is shaped by adults who are outside of the individual it’s also where the child/ individual is good in order to avoid being punished and if the person is punished they must’ve done wrong. In the stage 2 the children recognise there is not just one right view that’s handed down by authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints level 2 is conventional morality where morality standards have become internalised and authority isn’t questioned. Stage 3 is good interpersonal relationships as the child/ individual is good so they’re seen as being a good person by others and the answers relate to the approval of others. Stage 4 is maintaining social order where the child/individual is aware of wider rules of society, judgments concerning obeying rules in order to uphold the law and avoid guilt which is level 3 post conventional morality which is the abstract consideration of individual ethics and circumstances and the individual judgment is based on self chosen principles and moral reasoning based on an individual rights and justice. According to kohlbergs level of moral reasoning is as far as most people get. Stage 5 is the social contract and individual rights. The child is aware that while the rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number there are times when they’ll work against the interest of particular individuals. Stage 6 is universal principles so people have developed their own set of moral guidelines which may/ may not fit the law the principles apply to everyone for example human rights, justice and equality. The person prepared to defend the principles even if it means going against the term of society in the process and having to pay the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment. Kohlberg doubted that few people reached this stage. Cognitive distortions are patterns of negative/ exaggerated thought can reinforce maladaptive behaviour. In some cases cognitive distortions lead to mental health problems like depression for example a person may experience cognitive distortion overgeneralisation where a person experiences something negative and presumes it will happen repeatedly and is more likely to reinforce low self esteem or negative outlooks and two are hostile attribution bias and minimalisation. Hostile attribution bias is the extent to which an individual interprets the actions of others as hostile and individuals with high level of hostile attribution bias more likely to see benign and innocuous actions of another as hostile directly towards them for example such a person might see 2 people laughing together and make the assumption they’re laughing about them. It’s obviously become problematic if other factors are involved as the individual who has high hostile attribution bias could be inclined to get angry about what they’re seen making them more likely to be aggressive and likely to engage in criminal behaviour for example Eckhart, Barbour and Davidson found that men who committed domestic violence likely to display hostile attribution bias than men who were satisfied/distressed with marriage which is a further supporting link between hostile attribution bias and agressive crime. Minimalism is the type of cognitive bias where a person would be more likely to minimise/play down the severity of the circumstances they are in and it can be seen as denial/self deception as downplaying of a situation that highlights non acceptance of what they’ve done and perhaps the way of dealing with guilt. In the context of offending behaviour research suggests that offenders have the tendency to use minimisation as a way of reducing the guilt and perhaps even put some blame onto the victim as part of the process. Kennedy and grubin found that the majority of convicted sex offenders tended to blame the victim and a quarter of the sample interviewed believed the abuse was a positive thing for the victim minimlaisaing their involvement. A03: However the dilemmas are artificial ie it lacks ecological validity as most of the dilemmas are unfamiliar to most people for example it s all very well in being dilemma asking subjects whether Heinz should steal the drug to save his wife kohlbergs subjects are aged 10 and 16 so they’ve never been married and have never been placed in a situation remotely like the one in the story so how should they know whether Heinz should steal the drug? There is minimisation as barbaree reported that amongst 26 convicted rapists 54% denied having committed the offence at all and at 40% had minimised the harm they had caused the victim. Pollock and hashmall found that 35% of the sample of child molesters said the crime committed was non sexual and 36% said the victims consented. There is evidence that supports the hostile attribution bias as Schonenberg and justye had 55 violent offenders presented with images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions. Compared with a control group offenders are likely than non violent participants perceive images as angry/hostie. Dodge and frame found that children who were showed ambiguous provocation where the intention is neither clearly hostile or accidental. Prior to the study the children who had been judged as agressive are likely to perceive the situation as hostile. But the dilemmas are hypothetical ie not real and in a real situation, what course of action a person takes will have real consequences and sometimes a very unpleasant ones for themselves. Would subjects reason in the same way if they were placed in a real situation? Kohlbergs theory is heavily dependent on an individuals response to artificial dilemma brings question to validity of the results obtained through research. People may respond very differently to real life situations than an artificial dilemma presented to them in comfort of a research environment. The cognitive biases as an explanation of environment of incombent in offending behaviour is more useful as a way of describing thought processes as criminals go through after the crime have been committed for example minimalisation accurately describes how a person might deal with feelings of guilt but it doesn’t explain how they got there in the first place it’s important because it’s questionable as to how useful cognitive biases are as an explanation of offending behaviour. But it does raise the question are there distinct stages of moral development? Kohlberg claims that there are, but endocrine doesn’t always support the conclusion for example a person who has a justified decision on the basis of principles reasoning in one situation (post conventional morality stage 5 or 6) would frequently fall back on conventional reasoning ( stage 3 or 4) with another story. It seems reasoning about the right and wrong depends more upon the situation than upon the general rules. Individuals don’t always progress through stages and Rest found that 1 in 14 actually slipped backward. There is evidence for distinct stages of moral development looks weak, and some argue that behind the theory is culturally biased belief in the superiority of American values over those of other cultures and societies. There is poor research design because the way in which kohlberg carried out the research when constructing that theory may not have been the best way to test whether all children follow the same sequence of stage progression. The research is cross sectional, meaning he interviewed children of different ages to see what level of moral development they were at as it’s a better way to see if all the children follow the same order through the stages would’ve been to carry out an longitudinal research on the same children. Longitudinal research on kohlbergs theory since it was carried out by Colby et al tested on 58 male participants of kohlbergs original study and tested them six times in a span of 27 years and found support for kohlbergs original conclusion, we all pass through the stage of moral development in the same order. The sample is biased and according to Gillian it’s because kohlbergs theory is based on an all male sample, the stages reflect a male definition of morality (androcentric). Men’s’ morality is based on an abstract principles of law and justice, while women’s’ is based on principles of compassion and care and the gender bias issue is raised by gilligan is reminded of the significant gender debate that is still present in psychology, which when ignored, can have a large impact on the results obtained through research.

Answer 63

Differential association theory of offending suggest offending is learned in the same way as any other behaviour and through relationships and associations that we form with the people around us. Sutherlands theory represented the departure from the previous accounts that tended to assume that crime was genetically determined/ due to some weakness of character. According to Sutherland if the individual experiences related attitudes positively associated with crime rather than negatively in terms of punishment then likely to engage in criminal behaviour. The way in which a person becomes an offender is through learned attitudes and imitation of criminal acts. Differential associations ( the number of contacts with criminals over non criminals ) may vary in frequency, duration, priority and intensity. The process of learning criminal behaviour by association with criminal and anti criminal patterns involves all mechanisms involved in any other learning. ( behaviourism: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, social learning theory) the principle part of learning of criminal behaviour occurs within intimate personal groups. Sutherland claimed that the conditions which are said to cause crime should be present when crime is present and absent when crime is absent he developed a set of principles that could explain all types of offending, the theory is discriminate between individuals who become criminals and those who don’t whatever their race, class or ethnic background. It happens most often throughout interactions that the child associates with like family and peer group criminality arises from 2 factors; learned attitudes towards crime and learning of specific criminal acts. Sutherland thought that criminal behaviour could be learned through interactions with other deviant individuals it’s argued that people don’t only learn techniques and methods involved in certain crimes but pick up motives and attitudes behind them. With learning experiences differential associations will vary in frequency and the importance for each individual. A Cambridge study was conducted by Farrington et al into delinquent development was a prospective longitudinal survey of development of offending and antisocial behaviour in 411 males. The study began when children who were aged 8 in 1961 and living in the working class deprived in the inner city area of south London. The finding described criminal careers up the age of 50 looking at officially recorded convictions and self reported offending and of the males sample 41% were convicted of at least one offence between the age of 10 and 50 and the average conviction career lasted from the age of 19 to 28 and included of 5 convictions. The most important childhood risk factors are age 8 -10 for later offending measures of family criminality daring or a risk of taking low school attainment poverty and poor parenting. The small proportion of participants 7% were defined as chronic offenders because it accounted for about half of all officially recorded offences in the study. According to eysenck personality is innate and has a biological basis. Personality type is known as criminal personality. Individuals with criminal personality will score highly on measures of extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism. People are seen as difficult to condition and cold and unfeeling and these traits which may explain their criminality. A03: The theory doesn’t account for individual differences as some people are much more susceptible to the influence of others and the theory neglects to consider the role of temperament and personality. It can however account for white collar crime like corporate crime and how this may be a feature of middle class social groups who share deviant norms and values and Sutherland coined the term. Differential association can explain the crime for all race, gender and social groups and it accounts for crime within all sectors of society. The theory shifted the emphasis away from biology and eugenics arguments for criminality like the atavistic theory as well as those that explained offending as being the product of an individual weakness or immortality. The approach is more desirable because it offers a more realistic solution to the problem of crime instead of eugenics or punishment. The theory is impossibly to test because how do you count up someone’s associations and influences accurately? It’s hard to see for instance the number of pro criminal attitudes a person has or has been exposed to could be measured. The only evidence is correlational which is a problem as it means it only uncovers relationships and it won’t determine what variable will have the most influence it can also be a time consuming process and extraneous variables also might interfere with the information. The findings could also be explained through heritability so a person may have relatives that are criminals or have committed criminal acts and may be more vulnerable to inheriting those same genes. Offenders may also seek out people with criminal values so the people they interact with heave already developed their morals and values so offenders aren’t always interacting with people and influencing them to commit criminal acts. Eysencks theory’s research is seen as culturally biased as Holanchock studies black and Hispanic criminals in America and found them to be less extroverted than non criminals control groups.

Answer 64

The psychodynamic explanation of offending behaviour sees the superego, as a moral component of personality as crucial in explaining criminality. Freud never actually used explanations to explain the crime itself in 3 concepts used to explain crime which are an inadequate superego, defence mechanisms and maternal deprivation. With the inadequate superego Blackburn argues that if the superego is deficient then the criminality is inevitable as the ID isn’t properly controlled and were going to give into urges and impulses. An inadequate superego personality has 3 components the ID, ego and superego. Offending behaviour is caused by the imbalance of personality where the ID isn’t controlled enough. A weak superego may develop if the same sex parent is absent during the phallic stage of psycho sexual development which means we would fall to internalise the moral values of the same sex parent. The superego doesn’t punish so there is no guilt felt so the person shows no inhibition. A deviant superego may develop if a child internalises the morals of a criminal or a deviant same sex parent and the behaviour becomes what’s considered criminal. An over harsh superego may develop if the same sex parent is overly harsh it may mean an individual is crippled by guilt and anxiety and commits crime in order to satisfy the superegos need for punishment. It causes the child to seek/create opportunities to be punished to satisfy the need for punishment they have an unconscious desire to be punished so they engage in criminal behaviour. Defence mechanisms are unconscious processes which protect the conscious self from unpleasant events and the truth about their self. Some defence mechanisms like denial serve to keep emotion hidden. Others are cathartic meaning they allow the release of built up emotions they are; Displacement (where the focus of a persons anxiety is moved onto something else like a neutral target where it might be considered more acceptable acceptable than an underlying cause for example the actual focus of an individuals anxiety or frustration is their parents but instead they release tension by mugging somebody on the street. Denial is refusing to accept something unpleasant has happened because acknowledging it would be too upsetting so a serial murderer may refuse to consciously acknowledge they have done something really bad or that have really taken place. Sublimation is redirecting primitive impulses into more acceptable activities so if someone has the urge to rape/murder they may engage in violent sexual activity with a prostitute. Another psychodynamic theory is bowlbys maternal deprivation hypothesis. It predicts if an infant is deprived of a mother or a mother figure during a critical period of attachement in the first few years then there’ll be serious and permanent consequences. These consequences included maternal abnormalities, delinquency, depression, affectionless psychopathy and even dwarfism. A03: There is little evidence to back up the theory, as many children grow up without the same sex parents and the vast majority do not turn to crime. Although, family influence is undeniably a factor in criminality; individuals with delinquent parents or siblings are likely to turn to crime. With bowlbys theory the findings were replicated as loeber et al conducted a longitudinal study of boy from childhood to age 30 and found those who had experienced major changes in the family before age 10 are likely to show offending behaviour in adulthood which isn’t necessarily linked to maternal deprivation specifically but shows the importance of family stability in early life which is arguably what bowlby found as well. Bowlby had useful applications, as the theory highlights the importance of children forming emotional attachement in early life in order to avoid potential offending. The idea of an over harsh superego and wanted to to be punished does not stand up to scrutiny; most criminals go to great lengths not to be caught and punished. There is also no evidence for the existence of defence mechanisms as they are unconscious and so can’t be tested therefore invalidates the theory. Bowlbys theory also had data that was retrospective and may be unreliable and therefore we can’t use this information for further use. The psychodynamic theory also lacks falsifiability as Freud’s theory of personality is limited in the fact that it can’t be tested scientifically for example the concept of a superego is difficult to test empirically and lacks evidence yet it’s a crucial aspect of the psychodynamic explanations of offending behaviour it’s important as without such evidence the theory is inherently flawed. Freud’s theory is seen as sexist as he focuses on Oedipus complex and added the Electra complex as an afterthought as Freud argued that females are less moral than males this is because males fear castration by their father for moral transgression, females only fear losing their mothers love and the vast majority of criminals are male, not female. Males outnumber the females in prison throughout the world.

Answer 65

The psychodynamic explanation of offending behaviour sees the superego, as a moral component of personality as crucial in explaining criminality. Freud never actually used explanations to explain the crime itself in 3 concepts used to explain crime which are an inadequate superego, defence mechanisms and maternal deprivation. With the inadequate superego Blackburn argues that if the superego is deficient then the criminality is inevitable as the ID isn’t properly controlled and were going to give into urges and impulses. An inadequate superego personality has 3 components the ID, ego and superego. Offending behaviour is caused by the imbalance of personality where the ID isn’t controlled enough. A weak superego may develop if the same sex parent is absent during the phallic stage of psycho sexual development which means we would fall to internalise the moral values of the same sex parent. The superego doesn’t punish so there is no guilt felt so the person shows no inhibition. A deviant superego may develop if a child internalises the morals of a criminal or a deviant same sex parent and the behaviour becomes what’s considered criminal. An over harsh superego may develop if the same sex parent is overly harsh it may mean an individual is crippled by guilt and anxiety and commits crime in order to satisfy the superegos need for punishment. It causes the child to seek/create opportunities to be punished to satisfy the need for punishment they have an unconscious desire to be punished so they engage in criminal behaviour. Defence mechanisms are unconscious processes which protect the conscious self from unpleasant events and the truth about their self. Some defence mechanisms like denial serve to keep emotion hidden. Others are cathartic meaning they allow the release of built up emotions they are; Displacement (where the focus of a persons anxiety is moved onto something else like a neutral target where it might be considered more acceptable acceptable than an underlying cause for example the actual focus of an individuals anxiety or frustration is their parents but instead they release tension by mugging somebody on the street. Denial is refusing to accept something unpleasant has happened because acknowledging it would be too upsetting so a serial murderer may refuse to consciously acknowledge they have done something really bad or that have really taken place. Sublimation is redirecting primitive impulses into more acceptable activities so if someone has the urge to rape/murder they may engage in violent sexual activity with a prostitute. Another psychodynamic theory is bowlbys maternal deprivation hypothesis. It predicts if an infant is deprived of a mother or a mother figure during a critical period of attachement in the first few years then there’ll be serious and permanent consequences. These consequences included maternal abnormalities, delinquency, depression, affectionless psychopathy and even dwarfism. Sutherland suggested that criminal behaviour learned through association with and interaction with different people. It attempts to explain all types of offending the ‘conditions which are said to cause crime which should be present when the crime is present, and absent when the crime is absent’. According to the theory, criminal behaviour is learned in the same way as other behaviour, through interactions with others for example family, peers and so on. Criminality will arise from two factors: pro criminal attitudes and learning criminal acts. Pro criminal attitudes: if an individual is socialised into the group where there are more pro criminal attitudes than there are anti criminal attitudes, they go on to offend. Pro criminal attitudes may include disrespect for the police officers, disregard for the law and justification for crimes. If a person is consistently exposed to the attitudes from many people, they are likely to commit crimes. Learning criminal acts: the potential criminal learns practicalities of how to carry out criminal acts, like picking the lock/ disabling a car alarm system. Such learning takes place in groups and may happen when in prison, which could explain high rates of re offending amongst released prisoners. A03: The theory is hard to test for example how to measure the amount of pro criminal attitudes a person has been exposed to in their lives. The theory is argued to lack scientific rigour. The differential association theory can explain why different types of crime are common amongst different groups of people like burglary amongst working class urban groups, as attitudes towards crimes and how to carry it out is learned and shared amongst the group. Bowlby had useful applications, as the theory highlights the importance of children forming emotional attachement in early life in order to avoid potential offending. The idea of an over harsh superego and wanted to to be punished does not stand up to scrutiny; most criminals go to great lengths not to be caught and punished. The psychodynamic theory also lacks falsifiability as Freud’s theory of personality is limited in the fact that it can’t be tested scientifically for example the concept of a superego is difficult to test empirically and lacks evidence which is important because without such evidence the theory is inherently flawed so the differential association theory is hard to test for example how to measure the amount of pro criminal attitudes a person is exposed to in their lives, the theory is argued to lack scientific rigour. Differential association takes into account environment and interactions with other people whereas psychodynamic looks at internal processes and less focus on environmental factors. A similarity is that they both look at past events so they’re both retrospective and may be unreliable and can’t be depended on for later research as it may be inaccurate and in today’s research we look at both the past and present events. But the Freudian theory suggests that girls have weaker superegos than boys, as they are under less pressure to identify with the same sex parent due to a lack of castration anxiety and males show more criminal behaviour than females, which contradicts the prediction of an inadequate superego explanation, whereas the differential theory makes sure not to put aside anyone regardless of their gender or race etc so there is no judgement on anyone.

Answer 66

There are a number of situational variables that have been shown to affect obedience, including proximity, uniform and location. These were discovered by milgram who conducted research into obedience to find out why German soldiers during the war obeyed authority figures and carried out the crimes they did he wanted to find out if ordinary American citizens would obey an unjust order from an authority figure and inflict pain on another person because they were instructed to. He gathered a selection of 40 participants for his experiment through newspaper advertising for male participants to take part in his study of learning at Yale university. The procedure consisted of pairing a participant with another person who was an unknown confederate and drawing lots to find out who was the ‘learner’ and who was the ‘teacher’ but the draw was fixed so the participant was always the ‘teacher’ and the ‘learner ‘ was the confederate who would be taken into a room and had electrodes attached to their arms and the ‘teacher’ and researcher went into the room next door that contained an electric shock generator and a row of switches from 15volts to 375volts to 450volts this was used to shock the confederate next door when getting an answer wrong from a series of questions however the real participant when asked to administer the shocks could hear the confederate in pain but this was a recorded sound that they heard instead. Milgram did variations of the experiment and changed the independent variable so he could identify the factors that affected obedience the dependent variable. The main variations included uniform, location and touch proximity he also added a two teacher condition and a social support condition and an absent experimenter condition. The first variation involved milgram being called away because of a phone call at the start of the procedure and the role being taken over by a confederate in everyday clothes rather than a lab coat which establishes authority which caused obedience to drop by 20%. The second variation was to change location so the experiment was moved to run down offices rather than Yale university which people would associate with professionalism causing the obedience to drop to 47.5% suggesting that location affects obedience as people would respecte Yale university as it’s an established building. The final variation was touch proximity Where the teacher forced the learners hand on a shock plage when refusing to shock the confederate after 150 volts which caused obedience to fall to 30%. The results from the experiment at the time were considered extraordinary 65% of the participants continued to the highest level of 450 volts and all participants continued to 300 volts concluding that with the right level of authority people will go to great lengths to obey orders given. Location is a factor that makes people obey as supported by hofling in a hospital location where nurses were asked to administer a dosage of substance to patients after being phoned by a researcher posing as a doctor to see if they have the drug astroten and were told to administer a higher dosage than maximum and the doctor ( researcher) said he would authorise the dosage the next day in an experimental group 21 out of 22 (95%) nurses obeyed the doctors orders and were about to administer medication to the patient when a hidden observer stopped them. Uniform is another factors shown to affect obedience and gives us a reason as to why people obey as supported by bickman who conducted a field experiment in New York where confederates stood on the street and asked the citizens passing by to perform a task this could be picking up a piece of litter whilst the confederate wore either a smart suit jacket and tie, a milkman’s outfit or a security guards uniform and found in the final condition the citizens were twice as likely to obey an order given by a security guard which supports the idea that uniform adds legitimacy of authority and is a situational variable that increases obedience levels. A03: However milgrams research lacks population validity as milgram used a biased sample of male US volunteers from a broadly individualistic society so we’re unable to generalise results to other populations like collectivist cultures or explain the behaviour of females and can’t be concluded that those would respond in a similar way to the original sample by milgram. As a result we’re unable to concluded whether proximity, location and uniform are legitimate explanation of obedience in female participants as well as other cultures and the reason why people obey is limited to males which were used in the sample. As the study was conducted in a lab it gives it reliability and is repeatable with standardised procedure as the use of systematic procedure allows cause and effect to be established it then enables conclusions to be drawn. A weakness of milgrams study is that it lacks ecological validity this is because the experiment was conducted in a lab meaning it doesn’t reflect a real life situation. Orne & Holland accused the study of lacking experimental realism because participants may not have believed the experimental setup and could’ve known the learner wasn’t receiving electric shocks this could’ve lead to inaccurate results because if they’d have thought it wasn’t realistic they could’ve acted differently and refused to give them or gave them knowing the consequences. But not all research is consistent as shanab and yahya showed Jordanian participants to be just as obedient as milgrams American participants but it also showed that 1 out of 8 participants are willing to kill without any authority figure at all since almost all research into obedience is from America and Europe so there needs to be more replications in Africa and Asia to produce valid cross cultural findings. There are methodological issues with milgrams experiment as the participants may have been subjected to demand characteristics because they may have known the true purpose of the study and therefore acted in way that they thought they were supposed to in order to achieve those results and ensure the researchers gained what they wanted to and the factors that have shown to affect obedience to authority are correct. Also external validity may be more of a feature of variations than others. Real life examples include slaters study in a virtual environment which included a condition where a participant had to shock the learner via text from a mobile phone. There is contradictory evidence as found by Mandel with the mass killing of Jews that was undertaken in close proximity of the victim without protest suggesting that proximity isn’t necessarily a factor in obedience or a reason as to why people obey. There were ethical guidelines that were broken in order to get the results needed, so more researchers would need to repeat the experiments but this is unethical, and there were ethical problems with milgrams procedures and the spread of rigorous ethical codes in psychology make it unlikely that there will be many obedience studies in the future.

Answer 67

Interference theories suggests that forgetting is caused by competing memories, either because existing memories interfere with learning of new information ( proactive interference) or because new information interferes with previously learnt information (retroactive interference). Interference is an explanation for forgetting in long term memory and there are two types of interference; retroactive and proactive. Retroactive interference occurs when the learning of new information interferes with the recall of old information from long term memory for example once you have learned your new mobile number it’s often difficult to recall your old number so retroactive interference is when more recent information gets in the way of trying to recall older information. Proactive interference occurs when old information is stored in long term memory, it interferes with the learning of new information and usually occurs when new information is similar to old information. An everyday example of proactive interference is when you get a new mobile phone number: your memory for your old number will disrupt your attempts to remember your new number. Proactive interference is the reverse direction of interference to retroactive interference when old information prevents the recall of newer information. Baddeley and hitch conducted research to support for the interference theory and they examined rugby union players who played every match in the season and the players who had missed some games due to injury and players were asked to recall the names of teams they played against earlier in the season. Baddeley and hitch found that players who played the most games forgot proportionately more games than those who played fewer games due to injury. The results support the idea of refractive interference, as the learning of new information (new team names) interfered with the memory of old information (earlier team names). A03: However the theory can only explain the lack of recall when information in a similar format prevents recall which means there are many types of recall that are not explained by the theory. But there is evidence from lab studies as thousands of lab experiments have been carried out into inference, like McGeogh and McDonald’s research and studies show that both types of interference are very likely to be common ways we forget information and lab experiments also have strong control of confounding variables. There are real life studies as baddeley and hitch interference is more important in forgetting than the passage of time they asked rugby players to recall teams they had played in a season, week by week and found that players who had played in fewer games recalled proportionately more names than those who had played in most games and researchers attributed this to interference. But there is poor ecological validity because like much of the memory research there is a problem with the validity of research that supports the theory as it’s predominantly lab based and doesn’t test everyday recall and most research examining interference is carried out in a lab for example, keppel and underwood found that participants typically remembered three letter trigrams that were presented first in the sequence, irrespective of how long the interval was between presentation and recall. Many psychologists argue that these findings lack ecological validity because they don’t represent everyday examples of interference (or forgetting) and are limited to application to everyday human memory. Studies also use artificial materials in studies there are a lists of words and in everyday life we would remember things like peoples faces, birthdays, phone numbers and interference may not be a legitimate reason for forgetting in everyday life. The interference theory comes from underwood and postman who demonstrated retroactive interference for example participants are divided in two groups. Group A are asked to learn a list of word pairs ie cat tree, and are asked to learn a second list word pairs where a second paired word is different ie cat - glass. Group B were asked to learn the first list of word pairs only. Both groups were asked to recall the first list of word pairs and they found that group Bs recall of the first list was more accurate than the recall of group A. This is a strength of the research as it suggests learning items in a second list interfered with participants’ ability to recall the list and supports the existence of retroactive interference. Most of the research is supported by lab experiments which are high in internal validity and can be tested and used for later research. There is no doubt that interference plays a role in forgetting, but how much forgetting can be attributed to interference remains unclear as found by Anderson.

Answer 68

Behaviourism, is the theory of learning which states that all behaviours learned through interaction with environment through the process called conditioning. Behaviour is simply a response to environmental stimuli. Behaviourism is only concerned with observable stimulus response behaviours, and they can be studied in a systematic and observable manner. The behaviourist approach has assumptions such as; all behaviours are learned from the environment, behaviourism emphasises the role of environmental factors in influencing behaviour and we learn new behaviour through operant and classical conditioning and when we’re born our mind is a blank slate. The theories need to be supported by empirical data obtained through careful and controlled observation and measurement of behaviour. Watson stated that behaviourism is primarily concerned with observable behaviour, as opposed to internal events like thinking and emotion while behaviourists often accept the existence of cognitions and emotions, and prefer not to study them as only observable behaviour that can be objectively and scientifically measured. Internal events like thinking should be explained through behavioural terms. There is little difference between learning that takes place in humans and in other animals and there’s no fundamental distinction between human and animal behaviour. The research can be carried out on animals as well as humans, and rats and pigeons have become the primary source of data for behaviourists , as the environments could be easily controlled. Behaviour is the result of stimulus response and all behaviour, no matter how complex, can be reduced to simple stimulus response association. Operant conditioning involves learning through reinforcement when a behaviour is positively reinforced the behaviour is likely to be repeated and if the behaviour is negatively reinforced the behaviour is likely to not be repeated. Classical conditioning is learning through association when someone learns to associate something with a positive outcome then they’ll repeat this behaviour in order to get the reward. Classical conditioning is one of the ideas discovered by Pavlov during his research with dogs where he repeatedly presented a bell which is a neutral stimulus (NS) with food which is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) which lead to salivation which is the unconditioned response (UCR). After teaching the dog that the bell signalled food the dog learned to associate the bell wit food so the NA produces the same response of the UCS and the NS becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS) producing the conditioned response (CR). So if the conditioned stimulus being the bell is presented without the UCS a few time extinction occurs and the CR is no longer produced. Spontaneous recovery can occur if the CS and UCS is paired again and conditioned animals will also respond to other stimulus to the CS this is stimulus generalisation. Another behaviourist idea is operant conditioning which was discovered by Skinner and his theory suggests whether or not an animal repeats a particular behaviour depends on the consequence which is either positive or negative renforcement. Positive reinforcement occurs when a behaviour produces a consequence that’s rewarding. Negative reinforcement occurs when a behaviour removes an unpleasant consequence and decreases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated. The behaviourist approach is reductionist as it breaks down behaviour into components so it’s down to stimulus and learned behaviours from the environment and it’s not down to biological factors so it’s stimulus and reward that people learn through. A03: A problem with the behaviourist approach is the principle of operant and classical conditioning that doesn’t account for spontaneous behaviour in humans. But a strength of the behaviourist approach is the use of rigorous, experimental method of research that enhances the credibility of science as scientific discipline. The biological approach is very scientific because the experiments used are measurable, objective and can be repeated to test for reliability and this means we can use this for future experiments and studies. The biological approach also develops theories about the disorders and generalises them to apply to everyone and it doesn’t take into account the view that humans are unique and an example of this is the general adaptation syndrome which assumes that everyone responds in the same way to stress doesn’t take into account that some people have more support than others. The similarities between the behaviourist approach and the biological approach is the use of rigorous, experimental methods of the research enhances the credibility of science as scientific discipline and the biological approach is very scientific because the experiments used are measurable, objective and can be related to test for reliability. The differences between the biological and behaviourist approach is that the biological approach believes in the nature viewpoint, as the approach believes behaviour is controlled by genes, hormones and neurochemistry whereas the behaviourist approach believes in the nurture viewpoint so the approach believes that all behaviour is learned through the environment. But a similarity between the behaviourist and biological approach is that both are deterministic and imply that humans have no free will and another similarity between the approaches is that they both have practical applications that help to improve the quality of life for humans. But a difference between the approaches is that the behaviourist approach rejects the possible role of biological factors in human behaviour, unlike the biological approach which considers nature to be an important factor.

Answer 69

Androgyny involves people who are possessed of equally male and female gender traits. Most males behave in a more masculine ways and most females behave in feminine ways but whilst two men may share the same sex and share the same physical characteristics they may not share the same gender if one displays more masculine behaviour and the other more feminine behaviour. The media uses the term metrosexual to refer t men who display androgynous behaviour particularly men who have excessive interest in their appearance for example David beckham. Bem introduced the concept of pathological androgyny in the 70s proposing that a person can be masculine and feminine which is an idea that contrasted with the traditional view that masculine and feminine behaviours are two separate clusters and Bem argued that traditional views was that rigid sex roles were important for mental health whereas her view was the opposite is true and it was psychologically more healthy to avoid fixed sex role stereotypes and went on to argue that men and women should feel free to adopt a variety of masculine and feminine behaviours as suits their personality for example a man who likes cooking and being gentle shouldn’t have to stifle his personal inclinations because it isn’t manly behaviour and stifling personality in a way that psychological cast can lead to a mental disorder. Bem created the BSRI (bems sex role inventory) to test ideas Bem designed the inventory to make it possible to test for masculinity and femininity independently rather than setting them against each other. In traditional tests if you selected a masculine item you couldn’t select a feminine one and using an original scoring method individuals were categorised as masculine, ( high masculine score and low feminine score) feminine ( low masculine scores high feminine scores) and androgynous ( high ratio of masculine to feminine traits) there was also a fourth category of undifferentiated (low scores of masculine and feminine) which were added after criticisms by spence et al pointed out that Bem hadn’t distinguished between persons who are androgynous (high in masculine and feminine traits) and a different kind of androgyny where a person is neither masculine or feminine (low scores in both) and this is the undifferentiated type. The BSRI is a questionnaire designed to measure how masculine/feminine/ androgynous a person is. Bem asked 50 male and 50 female students to rate 200 traits for how desirable they were for males of females and from the list she selected 20 traits that were regarded as desirable for men for example self reliance, independence, aggressiveness, 20 for women for example warmth, cheerfulness, friendliness and 20 gender neutral traits for example honesty. Each person who takes the test rates themselves on a 7 point likert scale bem asked over 600 participants to rate each of the 60 items on a scale of 1 (never true of me) to 7 ( always true if me). Although many participants’ scores clusters around feminine or masculine, many were fairly androgynous (high scores on masculine and feminine traits) and some undifferentiated (low scores on masculine and feminine traits). A03: However critics argue that because Bems SRI was developed in the 1970s it means it’s outdated and based around stereotypes from 40+ years ago and 2001 sample of 400 students failed to reach an agreement on what adjectives stereotypically masculine and feminine so the SRI may lack temporal validity so we can’t accurately apply it to modern society. But it does have implications as gender identity influences how we behave and how we feel and how we think. The traditional idea is that it’s ‘healthier’ for males to be masculine and for females to be feminine for example evolutionary psychology. It’s often a persons gender role identify that conforms the expectation of society. The costs involved in the maintenance of gender role stereotypes. There are limiting opportunities for boys and girls, ignoring talent, and perpetuating unfairness in our society. Witt suggests that an androgynous gender role orientation is more beneficial to children than strict adherence to traditional gender roles as it opens up more opportunities in society. The concept of androgyny has implied that women are no longer expected or encouraged to resist the behaviour to traditional gender role specific traits. Bem, and other feminist psychologists, describe androgyny as a liberating force, leading women to live fuller lives. Families with one or more androgynous parent ie a mum who repairs a car or dad who bakes cookies are found to be the highest on scores of parental warmth and support and androgynous parents are found to be highly encouraging regarding achievement and developing a sense of self worth in sons and daughters. The BSRI lacks validity as there is a link between androgyny and psychological health explained in terms of intervening variable self esteem and most adjectives in the BSRI are socially desirable so someone who scored high on both masculine and feminine traits ie androgynous traits are also higher in self esteem than someone who chose only or female traits which suggests that androgyny doesn’t explain psychological healthiness but self esteem. The research that’s demonstrated has high test retest reliability for the BSRI over four week period correlations that range from a 76 to 94 short form of a scale developing using just 30 items and has a good correlation of 90 with the original having a shorter form of improved internal reliability of test because it’s less socially desirable in terms removed such as gullible and childlike and is high in reliability is vital for any test to produce meaningful results. The validity of BSRI is criticised for response bias as Liberman and gaa analysed data from 133 graduate students and found that students classed as androgynous simply had higher overall scores than those classed as either masculine or feminine and some individuals have the tendency to select answers at a higher end of the likert scale and become classed as androgynous and the scores may be the product of a measurement rather than representing a true difference. Parents who adopt an equal attitude regarding gender roles that are more likely to foster attitudes in their children and children whose mothers that work outside that home aren’t as traditional in sex role orientation as children whose mothers who stay at home. But reducing the concepts of masculinity and feminine to a single score may be an oversimplification and more recent approaches also measure various aspects of gender related behaviour, like the interests and abilities, rather than just personality traits.

Answer 70

A leading question if a question that suggests what answer is desired or leads to the desired answer. Loftus and palmer investigated how misdleading information can alter a memory post event. They asked participants to estimate the speed of two cars, changing cues provided in the question. Participants watched a film of 2 cars crashing and asked ‘’how fast were the cars going when they smashed/collided/bumped/hit/contacted.’’ They found ‘smashed’ yielded the highest speeds, and ‘contacted’ lowest. Showing that memory can be altered and is suggestible. An interviewer may use leading questions and so alter the individuals memory for events. This is especially the case when children are being interviewed about a crime larooy et al. Elizabeth loftus investigated leading questions by asking people the question ‘’ do you get headaches frequently? People who were asked this question reported an average of 2.2 headaches per week whereas those who were asked do you get headaches occasionally and if so how often? Reported an average of 0.7 headaches so the way the question was asked had a significant effect on the answer given. A03: A limitation of the research is it lacks mundane realism/ecological validity. The participants who viewed video clips rather than being present at a real life accident. As the video clip doesn’t have the same emotional impact as witnessing a real life accident so participants would be less likely to pay attention and are less motivated to be accurate in judgments. Although the study is high in replicability as it’s easy to reproduce because the method was a lab experiment which followed standardised procedure which makes it more reliable. Supporting research is by Braun who’s research had shown that misleading information can create false memories as they used misleading advertising material for Disneyland containing information about bugs bunny. Participants incorporated it into their orignal memories and remembered meeting bugs bunny during their visit to Disneyland showing how powerful misleading information can be in creating false memories. A problem with the study was the use of students as participants as students aren’t representative of general population , also they may be less experienced drivers and therefore are less confident in their ability to estimate speeds and it may have influences them to be more swayed by the verb in the question. Although the research does show it has application to the real world as it shows that eyewitness testimonies may be influenced by leading questions so this can then be used to prevent any misinformation being used in a real eyewitness testimony which could benefit either the person convicted or the victims involved in a criminal case for instance. It also a lab experiment meaning the research is reliable and also replicable which is highly needed as they would have to repeat the experiment on different samples in order to generalise these results to the general population as they’re not representative so it’s useful because it can be repeated in order to gather new information which we can apply to the general population and further out understanding on the effect of leading questions on the eyewitness testimony. Loftus and palmers research was highly controlled as it took place in a lab of Washington university therefore it has a high degree of control which reduces chance of extraneous variables so this increases the validity of the results. However there is contradicting evidence by Yuille and Cutshall who conducted a study that conflicts the findings of the loftus and palmer study as they found that misleading information didn’t alter the memory of people who witnessed a real armed robbery which implies that misleading information may have a greater influence in the lab rather than real life which further supports the idea that loftus and palmers study may have lacked in ecological validity.

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