Just everything Flashcards

Question

BBC prison study reicher and haslam | Findings

Answer 1

- participants didn’t conform to assigned roles - prisoners worked collectively to challenge authority of guards - guards were reluctant to impose authority on prisoners which led to collapse of prisoner guard system

Answer 2

- conformity to social roles isn’t automatic but is a matter of personal choice

Answer 3

- occurs when individual is faced with the choice of whether to obey a direct order from a person with higher status or defy them

Answer 4

Researching how far people would go in obeying an instruction if it involved harming another person

Answer 5

- involved series of different conditions each varying some aspect of situation - drew lots but real pps always acted as ‘teacher’ and confederate as ‘learner’ - teacher tested learners ability to remember word pairs administering fake electric shocks for any errors which increased in 15volt increments - one condition learner was in another room and stopped responding at 315volts & experimenter used ‘prods’ to keep teacher delivering shocks

Answer 6

- milgram asked various groups to predict how far participants would go before refusing to continue - predictions included few would go beyond 150volts - all participants went to at least 300volts with 12.5% stopping there - 65% delivered max shock level 450volts

Answer 7

- proximity - uniform - location

Answer 8

- learner in same room obedience dropped to 40% - touch proximity condition obedience dropped to 30% - experimenter absent condition obedience dropped to 21%

Answer 9

- uniforms influence obedience because they’re easily recognisable and convey power and authority - bushman found people were more likely to obey a researcher in a police style uniform than dressed as a business executive

Answer 10

- studies were conducted at Yale uni so participants had confidence in integrity of study - made them more likely to obey - when study was moved into run down offices obedience dropped to 48%

Answer 11

- person doesn’t see themselves as responsible for their actions but attributes responsibility to someone else eg an authority figure - when in agentic state individual is kept in it by binding factors eg fear of appearing rude by refusing to obey authority figure commands

Answer 12

- person may shift from an autonomous state where they feel responsible for their own actions to an agentic state - by shifting responsibility onto authority figure, person doesn’t feel guilty about their actions

Answer 13

-distinct personality pattern characterised by strict adherence to conventional values & belief in absolute obedience of submission to authority

Answer 14

- developed F scale to measure different components that made up authoritarian personality - people who scored high on F scale = grown up in authoritarian family (strong obedience)

Answer 15

- rigid beliefs in conventional values - general hostility towards other groups (minority)/ prejudice - intolerance of ambiguity - submissive attitude towards authority figures - displacement

Answer 16

- receive a harsh upbringing - little affection - punishment from parents

Answer 17

- authoritarian personality causes a child to have hostility towards parents but it remains unconscious because the child is unwilling to admit hostility - hostility is then displaced on to non threatening minority groups and appears in the form of prejudice

Answer 18

- follow up study from milgrams study - 20 obedient and 20 disobedient pps - pps completed a personality scale - the minnesota mulitphasic personality inventory ( MMPI) and F scale - also asked questions about their uprbinging and their attitude to the experimenter abd the learner in milgrams study

Answer 19

- little difference between obedient and disobedient pps on MMPI scores - higher levels of authoritarianism among obedient pps than disobedient pps - obedient pps reported being less close to their fathers during childhood and saw the authority figure as more admirable than the learner

Answer 20

- perception that a person has assistance available from other people within the group - makes a person better able to remain independent in situations where they would be expected to conform or obey - enables individuals to resist pressures to conform because it breaks the unanimity of majority - disobedient peers act as role models on which a person can base their own behaviour eg resisting an order from an authority figure

Answer 21

- a persons perception of personal control of their own behaviour

Answer 22

- people with internal loc believe what happens to them is result of own ability & effort rather than influence of others - less likely to rely on opinions of others = makes them less vulnerable to social influence

Answer 23

- people with external loc believe what happens to them is determined by external factors eg influence of others or luck - less likely to display independent behaviour

Answer 24

- form of social influence where members of majority group change their beliefs or behaviours as a result of their exposure to persuasive minority

Answer 25

- consistency - commitment - flexibility

Answer 26

- overtime consistency in the minoritys views increase the amount of interest from other people - consistency makes others rethink their own views - this draws the attention of the majority group to the minority position

Answer 27

- synchronic - people in the minority are all saying the same thing - diachronic - they have been saying the same thing for a long time

Answer 28

- sometimes minorities engage in quite extreme activites to draw attention to their cause - its important that these extreme activities are at some risk to the minority because this demonstrates commitment to the cause - aka augmentation principle

Answer 29

- sometimes the minority have to be willing to compromise with the majority in order for the social change to happen

Answer 30

- To investigate the effects of a consistent minority on a majority

Answer 31

- participants given eye tests to ensure they werent color-blind. - placed 2 confederates together with 4 genuine participants - shown 36 slides which were clearly different shades of blue & asked to state color of each slide out loud - first part of experiment 2 confederates answered green for each of the 36 slides & totally consistent in responses - second part of the experiment they answered green 24 times & blue 12 times and inconsistent

Answer 32

- one condition found consistent minority had an affect on majority (8.42%) compared to an inconsistent minority (only 1.25% said green). - 32% of all participants judged the slide to be green at least once.

Answer 33

-Minorities can influence a majority, but not all the time & only when they behave in certain ways e.g. consistent behavior style

Answer 34

``` D - drawing attention to an issue C - cognitive conflict C - consistency A - augmentation principle S - snowball effect ```

Answer 35

- a minority can bring about social change by drawing attention to an issue eg suffragettes

Answer 36

- minority creates a conflict in the minds of majority between whats currently believed and what the minority believes eg only men can vote

Answer 37

- if a minority suffers for its views its taken more seriously eg suffragettes risked imprisonment or even death

Answer 38

- minority influence initially had a small effect but this spreads more widely until it eventually leads to large scale social change eg after suffragettes actions the idea finally spread to the majority

Answer 39

- young adults misperceive the frequency with which a behaviour occurs among their peers - social norms interventions communicate to a target population the actual norm concerning such behaviour in the hope that recipients will change their behaviour to bring it in line with the norm - in montana the correction of misperceptions about the norm of drink driving led to a reduction in the frequency of this behaviour

Answer 40

STM- involves an extremely limited number of items that humans are capable of keeping in their mind at one time LTM- refers to the storage of info over an extended period

Answer 41

- a measure of how much info can be held in memory - stm = limited capacity store - ltm= a potentially infinite capacity

Answer 42

- a measure of how long a memory lasts before its no longer available - stm= less than 18sec unless items are rehearsed - ltm= potentially lasts forever

Answer 43

-refers to the way in which info is changed so that it can be stored in memory - stm = encoded acoustically - ltm= encoded semantically

Answer 44

- capacity of STM can be assessed using digit span tests - miller reviewed exisiting research and concluded that stm capacity was 7 +/- 2 items - eg when dots were flashed on a screen pps were reasonably accurate with their recall when there were 7 dots but inaccurate with 15 dots - miller also found people can recall 5 words as well as they can recall 5 letters, they do this by chunking

Answer 45

- grouping sets of digits or letters into meaningful units

Answer 46

- found that pps were 90% correct in their recall of consonant sullables after 3sec - only 2% correct after 18sec

Answer 47

- found in photo recognition test pps could remember names of former classmates with 90% accuracy within 15yrs of graduation - figure declined to 70% after 48yrs - recall was about 60% accurate after 15yrs dropping to 30% after 48yrs

Answer 48

- had 4 groups learn different word lists A- acoustically similar B - acoustically dissimilar C - semantically similar D - semantically dissimilar - when stm was tested group A had the worst recall - when ltm was tested 20 mins later group C had the worst recall

Answer 49

- an explanation of memory based on 3 separate stores and how info is transferred between these stores

Answer 50

- sensory memory - stm - ltm

Answer 51

- info in sm register is held at 5 senses - only able to hold accurate images of sensory info momentarily but capacity of sensory is very large - most info is lost as it receives no attention - if attention is focused on one of sensory stores info is passed to stm - info held in stm is used for immediate tasks eg working on maths problem - stm= limited duration & decays rapidly unless rehearsed & new info entering stm pushes out current info - eventually rehearsal can lead to info being transferred from stm to ltm - info stored in ltm can be returned to stm by process of retrieval where it becomes available for use

Answer 52

- an explanation of the memory used when working on a task

Answer 53

- suggests one store for visual processing and a separate store for processing sounds

Answer 54

- central executive - phonological loop - visuo spatial sketchpad - episodic buffer

Answer 55

- directs attention to particular tasks by allocating the brains resources to one of the three slave systems - drives the whole system and allocates data to subsystems, also deals with cognitive taks like mental arithmetic and problem solving

Answer 56

- deals with auditory info and preserves the order of info - divided into the phonological store which holds the words heard and the articulatory process which allows for maintenance rehearsal of acoustic info

Answer 57

- used for planning of spatial tasks & temporary storage of visual and/or spatial info - contains the visual cache which stores info about visual items and the inner scribe which stores the arrangements of objects in the visual field - stores and processes info in a visual or spatial form - used for navigation

Answer 58

- general store for both visual and acoustic info - integrates info from the central executive, phonological loop and the visuo spatial sketchpad - also sends info to ltm - stores both visual and acoustic info and integrates it in order to constrict a mental episode of whats being experienced

Answer 59

- episodic - procedural - semantic

Answer 60

- concerned with personal experience | - individuals unique memory of a specific event or events in which they were involved

Answer 61

- details of the event - context of the event - emotions felt at the time eg traumatic event

Answer 62

- concerned with skills like knowing how to tie a shoelace - remembering how to do something rather than knowing what to do - typically acquired through repetition and practice - were less aware of these memories as theyve become automatic

Answer 63

- memories related to knowledge about the world - shared by everyone instead of being personal experience - related to things like function of objects or what behaviour is appropriate in a particular situation - may also be repeated to abstract concepts like mathematics & language

Answer 64

- proactive | - retroactive

Answer 65

- where one memory disturbs the ability to recall another - might result in forgetting or distorting one or the other or both - more likely to happen if memories are similar

Answer 66

- previously learned material interferes with current attempts to learn something leading to forgetting of current material - previously learnt info interferes with new info you’re trying to store

Answer 67

- learning something new interferes with previously learned material leading to that material being forgotten - new memory interferes with older ones

Answer 68

- analysed findings from a number of studies and found that participants were less able to learn word lists presented later in a sequence in comparison to those presented earlier on, showing of evidence of PI - PI results from response competition between current and previously learned info at recall. - the finding that the PI effect was greater in later lists is attributed to the increasing competition of multiple associations at recall

Answer 69

- first identified RI in a study where participants given an intervening task in between learning nonsense syllables and recalling them performed less well than those without the intervening task

Answer 70

- showed that forgetting of original material is greater if the intervening items presented prior to recall are more similar to the original something that only RI rather than decay can explain

Answer 71

- an explanation of forgetting based on the idea that we don’t have necessary cues to access the memory - forgetting in LTM is mainly due to retrieval failure

Answer 72

- a trigger of info that allows us to access a memory

Answer 73

- context dependent | - state dependent

Answer 74

- occurs when the environment during recall is different from the environment you were in when you were learning - when the context is different it’s more difficult to retrieve info

Answer 75

- divers learned a word list on land or underwater and were then tested on land or underwater - the highest recall was when the initial context matched the recall environment

Answer 76

- occurs when your mood or physiological state during recall is different from the mood you were in when you were learning - when these states are different it’s more difficult to retrieve info

Answer 77

- asked participants to remember a list of words when either drunk or sober and then recall the list after 24hrs when either drunk or sober - recall was best when in the same state both times

Answer 78

- evidence provided in court by a person who witnessed a crime with a view to identifying the perpetrator

Answer 79

- a question that suggests what answer is described or leads to the desired answer - contains misleading pieces of info or wording - usually closed questions

Answer 80

- researchers showed 45 students 7 films of different traffic accidents - after each film participants were given a questionnaire with a critical question containing one of 5 verbs: - ‘how fast were the cars going when they - contacted/hit/bumped/collided/ smashed each other?’

Answer 81

- participants given the verb ‘smashed’ reported an average speed of 40.8mph - participants given the verb ‘contacted’ reported an average speed of 31.8mph

Answer 82

- participants were divided into 3 groups and shown a film of a car accident and again asked questions about speed. - 1 week late they were asked a series of questions about the accident including the question: - ‘ did you see any broken glass?’ - When there wasn’t any

Answer 83

- leading question changed the actual memory some participants had for the event - 32% of participants given the verb ‘ smashed’ reporting broken glass compared with 14% of those given the verb ‘hit’

Answer 84

- occurs when witnesses to a crime discuss it with each other so their ewt may become contaminated - as they combine mis info from other witnesses with their own memories

Answer 85

- showed pairs of participants a different video of the same event so that each participant viewed unique items - pairs were encouraged to discuss the event before individually recalling what they had witnessed - 71% of these participants went on to mistakenly recall items acquired during their discussion

Answer 86

- each time an eyewitness is interviewed theres a possibility that comments from the interviewer will become incorporated into their own recollection of events

Answer 87

- found when children are being interviewed about a crime an interviewer used leading questions and so alter individuals memory for events

Answer 88

- response bias explanation | - substitution explanation

Answer 89

- refers to our tendency to provide inaccurate or even false answers to self-report questions like surveys

Answer 90

- the wording of a leading question actually changes a participants memory

Answer 91

- anxiety creates physiological arousal in body which prevents us paying attention to important cues so recall is worse

Answer 92

- monitored eyewitness eye movements - found the presence of a weapon caused attention to be drawn towards weapon itself and away from other things like a persons face

Answer 93

- where in violent crimes arousal may focus the witness on more central details of the attack - eg weapon rather than the more peripheral details

Answer 94

- participants heard an argument and saw a man carrying a pen covered in grease ( low anxiety condition) or a knife covered in blood ( high anxiety condition) - they were later asked to identify the man from a set of photographs

Answer 95

- the mean accuracy was 49% in the low anxiety pen condition | - 33% in the knife condition supporting the idea of a weapon focus effect

Answer 96

- the stress of witnessing a crime or accident creates anxiety through physiological arousal within the body - fight or flight response is triggered which increases our alertness and improves our memory for events because we become more aware of cues in this situation

Answer 97

- found better than 75% accurate recall in real witnesses to bank robberies - witnesses who were most anxious had the best recall

Answer 98

- reviewed studies of the effects of anxiety on eyewitness accuracy and concluded that when anxiety is only moderate then accuracy is enhanced - in conditions of extreme anxiety accuracy is reduced

Answer 99

- cognitive interview- police technique for interviewing eyewitnesses to a crime - encourages them to recreate the original context of the crime in order to increase accessibility of stored info through use of multiple retrieval strategies

Answer 100

- report everything - reinstatement of context - change order - change perspective

Answer 101

- witness is encouraged to report every single detail of the event even though it may seem irrelevant - memories are interconnected so recollection of one memory may cue another memory

Answer 102

- witness is encouraged to mentally recreate the physical and psychological environment of the original incident - the aim is to provide contextual and emotional cues to retrieve memories

Answer 103

- interviewer tries alternative ways through the timeline of the incident - eg by reversing the order in which the events occurred. - the rationale is that this prevents pre-existing schema influencing recall

Answer 104

- the witness is asked to recall the incident from multiple perspectives eg by imagining how it would have appeared to other people present - this also disrupts the effect that schemas might have on recall

Answer 105

- involves the interviewer doing most of the talking, asking specific questions that require specific answers - they may also ask leading questions that contaminate a witness’s memory - these techniques disrupt the natural process of searching through memory, making memory retrieval inefficient

Answer 106

- an emotional bond between two people - it’s a two way process that endures over time - it leads to certain behaviours like clinging and proximity setting - serves function of protecting an infant

Answer 107

- when an infant responds to the actions of another person in a form of turn taking the actions of one person being the primary caregiver elicits a response from the other being the infant

Answer 108

- demonstrates that infants coordinated their actions with their caregiver which can be described as a non verbal conversation

Answer 109

- thought that basic rhythm is important precursor to late communications - the regularity of an infants signals allow the caregiver to anticipate the infants behaviour and respond accordingly - sensitivity to infant behaviour is the foundation for later attachment between caregiver and infant

Answer 110

- takes place when infants mirror actions or emotions of another person eg their facial expressions

Answer 111

- discovered infants as young as 2 or 3 weeks old imitated specific facial and hand gestures made by an adult model - in a later study they found evidence of IS in babies as young as 3 days old - suggesting that this type of imitative response is more likely to be innate rather than learned

Answer 112

- carried out study of 60 infants in Glasgow - longitudinal study where babies and mothers were studied every month for the first year and then again at 18mths - infants were 5 to 23 wks old at the start and were studied until the age of 1 yr - researchers then described the stages of attachment - asocial - indiscriminate - discriminate - multiple

Answer 113

- infant shows similar responses to objects and people | - at the end of the stage they display preference for faces and eyes

Answer 114

- infant enjoys human company over non human - can distinguish between people but comforted equally by anyone - don’t show stranger anxiety yet

Answer 115

- shows preference for a single caregiver displaying separation and stranger anxiety - infant looks to a particular person for security and protection

Answer 116

- infant displays attachment towards several people eg parents , grandparents - attachment are often structured in a hierarchy whereby an infant may have formed 3 attachments but one may be stronger than the other two

Answer 117

- a diary was kept by the mother to examine the evidence for the development of attachment 3 measures were recorded: - stranger anxiety - separation anxiety - social referencing - stranger anxiety - response to the arrival of a stranger - separation anxiety - distress level when separated from carer, degree of comfort needed in return - social referencing - degree that child looks at carer to check how they should respond to something new aka secure base

Answer 118

- results of the study indicated that attachments were most likely to form with those who responded accurately to the baby’s signals not the person they spent more time with - aka sensitive responsiveness - intensely attached infants had mothers who responded quickly to their demands and interacted with their child - infants who were weakly attached had mothers who failed to interact - most important fact in forming attachments isn’t who feeds or changes the child but who plays and communicates with them - sensitive responsiveness to the baby’s signals appeared to be the key to attachment - at around 25- 32 weeks, 50% of the children showed separation anxiety towards their mothers expected of the discriminate stage - by 40 weeks 80% of the children had a specific (discriminate) attachment 30% had started to form multiple attachments

Answer 119

- results provided some support for Schaffer’s stages of attachment & suggest attachment develops through a series of stages across the first year of life

Answer 120

- Schaffer and Emerson found that fathers were less likely to be primary attachment figures than mothers - lamb reported that there was little relationship between the amount of time fathers spend with their infants and infant - father attachment

Answer 121

- some researchers claim that men are simply not equipped to form an attachment - biological reasons why fathers are less likely to be primary attachment figures - eg oestrogen underlies caring behaviour in women & lack of oestrogen in men is why they’re unable to form a close attachment

Answer 122

- cultural expectations and sex stereotypes affect male behaviour - include belief that it’s feminine to be sensitive to others needs

Answer 123

- found men are less likely to be sensitive to infant cues - other research frodi et al has shown there’s no difference in physiological responses of males & females to an infant crying - some researchers argue fathers can demonstrate sensitive responsiveness & respond to the needs of their children and can form a strong emotional tie or bond as there’s evidence of males forming secure attachments with their children or sharing the role of primary attachment - eg frank et al although biological and cultural factors may make this less likely

Answer 124

- to investigate the mechanisms of imprinting where the youngsters follow and form an attachment to the first large, moving object they meet

Answer 125

- one clutch of goose eggs divided into two groups - 1 left with the mother - 2 placed in an incubator - the first thing this batch saw when they hatched was Lorenz - they soon started to follow him around= imprinting

Answer 126

- non incubator gosling started following their natural mother and the incubator goslings ignored their natural mother and followed Lorenz - if goslings weren’t exposed to a moving object during a specific time period aka critical period the animals didn’t imprint - imprinting is similar to attachment in that it binds the young to a caregiver long lasting effects: - imprinting is irreversible and long lasting - sexual imprinting -later mates are chosen based upon the object they imprinted on

Answer 127

- results suggest imprinting is a form of attachment that’s exhibited by birds that typically leave the nest early whereby they imprint onto first large moving object they encounter after hatching

Answer 128

- to demonstrate that attachment isn’t based on the feeding bond between mothers and infant as predicted by the learning theory

Answer 129

- Harlow created 2 wire mother surrogates. 1 of these surrogates was wrapped in soft cloth aka contact comfort and the other was a ‘ wire mother’ - a sample of 16 baby rhesus monkeys were used across the 4 caged conditions 1 condition - ‘wire mother’ dispensing milk and ‘cloth mother’ with no milk 2 condition - ‘ wire mother’ with no milk and cloth mother dispensing milk 3 condition - wire mother dispensing milk 4 condition - cloth mother dispensing milk - measurements were made of the amount of time each infant spend with the 2 different mothers and of their responses when frightened - to test for mother preference during periods of stress the monkeys were startled with loud noises and their responses recorded

Answer 130

- all the motherless monkeys spent most time with the cloth covered mother surrogate whether she had milk or not and when frightens all clung to the cloth covered mother - the motherless monkeys developed to be socially and sexual abnormal in their interactions with other monkeys - if the motherless monkeys spent time with monkey ‘peers’ they could recover but only if this happened before they were 3 months old

Answer 131

- baby rhesus monkeys appear to have an innate drive to seek contact comfort from their parent suggesting attachment is formed through an emotional need for security rather than food which is in contrast to learning theory explanation - this contact comfort provided by the mother is associated by a higher willingness to explore their surroundings and lower levels of stress

Answer 132

- learning theory of attachment is a behaviourist explanation that suggests that attachments develop through classical and/or operant conditioning - it’s sometimes referred to as the cupboard love theory as the infant attaches to the caregiver who provides the food

Answer 133

- in classical conditioning food is the unconditioned stimulus (ucs) and pleasure is the unconditioned response (ucr) - the caregiver is a neutral stimulus who produces no response - they’re continually paired with the UCS she slowly becomes the associated with it until eventually the mother alone can produce pleasure - mother is now a conditioned stimulus (CS) and produces a conditioned response (CR)

Answer 134

- Pavlov created his theory of classical conditioning through his experiments with dogs by accident he found that he could create a paired association between a bell and food

Answer 135

- he presented the dogs with the sound of a bell= NS neutral stimulus - he presented them with food and the dogs salivated - the food= UCS - salivation = UCR - then he repeatedly presented the dogs with the sound of the bell first and then the food - after a few repetitions the dogs salivated when they heard the sound of the bell - the bell= CS - salivation= CR - Pavlov found that for associations to be made the two stimuli had to be presented close together in time eg a bell he called this the law of temporal contiguity

Answer 136

- before conditioning Food UCS ——> pleasure UCR NS——> no response NS + UCS = UCR NS = CS ——> pleasure CR

Answer 137

- NS - an event that doesn’t produce a response - UCS - an event that produces an innate unconditioned response - UCR - an innate conditioned behaviour that an organism produces when exposed to a UCS - CS - an event that produces a learned response - CR - a learned behaviour that an organism produces when exposed to a CS

Answer 138

- theory suggests learning is through reinforcement - baby has to learn to form an attachment with its caregiver - caregiver rewards baby by feeding him so they associate caregiver with the reward & repeats any action that brings her close - food brings a feeling of pleasure = reward to the baby - Food is the primary reinforcer - by removing discomfort it reinforces the behaviour that led to its arrival - but food doesn’t come without caregiver bringing it so the caregiver becomes the secondary reinforcer even without food the presence of mother reduced discomfort & brings a feeling of pleasure - the baby will therefore repeat any action eg crying which brings the caregiver close

Answer 139

- suggested a hungry infant feels uncomfortable & this creates a drive to reduce discomfort - any behaviour resulting in rewards is reinforced - any behaviour that results in punishments isnt reinforced - when infant is fed this discomfort is reduced & feeding produces feelings of pleasure aka positive reinforcement - food is a primary reinforcer as it directly satisfies hunger - caregiver is a secondary reinforcer as they’re associated with the primary reinforcer - attachment occurs because child seeks person who can supply the reward

Answer 140

- to analyse animal behaviour by detecting when an animal has performed a desired behaviour & then administering a reward thus determining how long it takes animal to learn to perform the behaviour

Answer 141

- used rats to study operant conditioning - created the Skinner box - Skinner box allowed complete control of the organisms environment the behaviours that were available to it & the reinforcement or punishment it would receive - he investigated how the type of reinforcement or punishment given & the rate of reinforcement or punishment affected the rate of learning - rat would be put in the box in which temperature light & noise could be kept constant - on one wall of the box there would be a lever & a hopper that could deliver a food pellet to the animal when the lever was pressed - rat would accidentally press the lever & receive a food pellet - Skinner measured how frequently the rat pressed the lever over time - frequency should indicate the strength of the conditioning of the behaviour

Answer 142

- he identified terms such as reinforcement and punishment - found different schedules of reinforcement had different effects on the speed of learning and extinction - discovered the use of positive and negative reinforcement

Answer 143

- continuous reinforcement - fixed ratio reinforcement - fixed interval reinforcement - variable ratio reinforcement - variable interval reinforcement

Answer 144

- continuous: animal/human is positively reinforced every time a specific behaviour occurs eg every time a lever is pressed a pellet is delivered and then food delivery us shut off - response rate is slow - fixed ratio: behaviour is reinforced only after the behaviour occurs a specified number of times eg reinforcement is given after every so many correct responses eg after every 5th response - response rate is fast - fixed interval: one reinforcement is given after a fixed time interval providing at least one correct response has been made eg being paid by the hour - response rate is medium - variable ratio: behaviours reinforced after an unpredictable number of times eg gambling - response rate is fast - variable interval: providing one correct response has been made reinforcement is given after an unpredictable amount of time has passed eg on average every 5 mins - eg a self employed person being paid at unpredictable times - response rate is fast

Answer 145

- operant conditioning can be used to change behaviour either using positive or negative reinforcement

Answer 146

- a consequence that makes a behaviour more likely to occur

Answer 147

- a consequence that makes a behaviour less likely to occur

Answer 148

- a response or behaviour is strengthened by rewards leading to the repetition of desired behaviour - eg Skinner box had a lever that when pushed released a food pellet so the rats learned to go to the lever after a few times of being put in the box in order to receive food they would repeat the action again and again

Answer 149

- the termination of an unpleasant state following a response it strengthens behaviour because it stops or removes an unpleasant experience - eg Skinner placed a rat in the box & subjecting it to an unpleasant electric current which caused it some discomfort but when the lever was knocked the electric current would be switched off so rats learned to use the lever & the consequence of escaping the electric current ensured that they would repeat the action again

Answer 150

- opposite of reinforcement designed to weaken or eliminate a response rather than increase it its an aversive event that decreases the behaviour that it follows - punishment works either by directly applying an unpleasant stimulus like a shock after a response or by removing a potentially rewarding stimulus

Answer 151

- tendency to form attachments is innate | - tendency is present in both infants and mothers

Answer 152

- infants have no innate tendency to form attachments - they learn attachments because of food - attachment behaviour serves an important survival function: an infant who isn’t attached is less well protected attachments are adaptive - parents must also be attached to their infants in order to ensure that the infants are cared for and survive - infants who don’t have the opportunity to form an attachment during the critical period between brith and 2.5 years old seem to have difficulty forming attachments later on

Answer 153

- bowlby said that if attachment didn’t happen the child would be damaged for life: - socially - emotionally - intellectually - physically - attachment is determined by sensitivity ie infants who are most strongly attached are the ones whose mothers are most responsive and most accessible

Answer 154

- babies have social releasers which unlock the innate tendency of adults to care for them - social releasers are both: - physical - features of the infant like smiling and having a baby face which elicit caregiving - behavioural - eg crying, cooing

Answer 155

- bowlby proposed that infants have one special emotional bond aka monotropy as well as many secondary attachments - bowlby believed that infants form one very special attachment with their mother - if the mother isn’t available the infant could bond with another adult mother substitute

Answer 156

- through the monotropic attachment the infant would form an internal working model - this is a special mental schema for relationships which enables them to influence the caregivers behaviour and acts as a template for future relationships so all the child’s future adult relationships will be based on this

Answer 157

- proposes individuals who’re strongly attached in infancy continue to be socially & emotionally competent throughout childhood & adulthood compared to infants who aren’t strongly attached

Answer 158

- to study the relationship between an infant and it’s primary caregiver

Answer 159

- consists of 8 episodes the key feature of these episodes is that the caregiver and the stranger alternately stay with the infant or leave 1- caregiver, infant & observer: - mother and child enter playroom - child explores the environment 2- caregiver and infant: - caregiver sits and watches infant exploring and playing with toys 3- stranger, caregiver and infant: - second female stranger enters the room, interacts with caregiver and then plays with infant 4- stranger and infant - caregiver has left the room - stranger interacts with child 5- caregiver and infant - reunion - caregiver returns greets and comforts the infant and then leaves again 6- infant alone - infant left alone in the room 7- stranger and infant - stranger enters and tries to interact with child 8- caregiver and infant - caregiver returns, greets and picks up infant - stranger leaves - ainsworth observed how the infants behaved through a one way mirror during the episodes each lasting 3 mins - observations of the behaviours were recorded: - separation anxiety - reunion behaviour - exploration - stranger anxiety - observers recorded what the infant is doing every 15 secs using 5 behavioural categories with each item scored for intensity on a scale of 1 - 7

Answer 160

- found evidence of 3 different types of attachment - secure - type b - insecure avoidant - type a - insecure resistant - type c - secure -66% - uses their mother as a ‘’ safe base’’ and were happy to explore the room when she was present - showed distress through when she left and welcomed her back into the room setting back down fairly quickly - wary of the stranger and treated them differently - insecure avoidant- 22% - keeping a distance and avoiding closeness - didn’t orientate their behaviour towards their mother - showed little distress on mother’s departure but didn’t seek comfort when they returned - rejected strangers attempt to comfort - insecure resistant - 12% - expected the relationship to be difficult and alternated between seeking closeness and wanting distance - very distressed at separation - not easily comforted appeared angry and rejected mothers attempts to comfort them and acted similar towards the stranger

Answer 161

- each child reacted differently to both the stranger and their mother in different ways for each part of the study

Answer 162

- to look at the proportions of secure, insecure avoidant and insecure resistant attachments across a range of countries and within countries

Answer 163

- conducted a meta analysis of the findings from 32 studies where the strange situation had been used - involved over 2000 strange situation classifications in 8 different countries

Answer 164

- secure attachment = most common in all countries - insecure avoidant= next most common - insecure resistant= least common - variations within countries were greater variation between countries

Answer 165

- secure attachment type is the norm in a wide range of cultures - however cultural practices have an influence on attachment type - presence of these cultural similarities supports the idea that secure attachment is best for healthy social and emotional development

Answer 166

- emphasises family and work goals above individual needs and desires there’s a high degree of interdependence between people

Answer 167

- emphasises personal independence and achievement at the expense of group goals resulting in a strong sense of competition

Answer 168

- studied an African tribe the Efe who live in extended groups - despite differences in childbearing practices the infants at 6 months still showed one primary attachment

Answer 169

- found higher levels of insecure attachment amongst German infants than in other cultures - German culture involves keeping some interpersonal distance between parents and children - means infants didn’t engage in proximity seeking behaviours in the strange situation and so appear to be insecurely attached

Answer 170

- found similar rates of secure attachment in Japanese infants to those found by ainsworth et al - however the Japanese infants showed no evidence of insecure avoidant attachment and high rates of insecure resistant attachment - in Japan infants rarely experience separation from their mothers which would explain why they were more distressed in the strange situation than their American counterparts

Answer 171

- deprivation from the caregiver during the critical period will have harmful effects on a child including: - socially - emotionally - physically - intellectually - it emphasises the value of maternal care - bowlby believed that children needed a warm intimate and continuous relationship with a mother

Answer 172

- bowlby claims psychological damage is inevitable if a child is separated from the mother for an extended period without suitable substitute care within the first 30months of their lives

Answer 173

- occurs when there’s a failure to from an attachment to any individual - privated children don’t show distress when separated from a familiar figure which indicates a lack of attachment

Answer 174

- an attachment between child & the caregiver is broken - refers to loss of emotional care that’s normally provided by a primary caregiver - bowlby suggested the long term consequences of deprivation was emotional maladjustment or even mental health problems such as depression

Answer 175

- occurs when children have formed an attachment & are then separated from their attachment figure - this could happen for reasons like death of the mother or by either of them being in hospital

Answer 176

- genie between 14 and 20 months was developmentally delayed as told by doctors - father took it seriously deciding she was profoundly ‘retarded’ - subjected her to severe confinement and ritual ill treatment in an attempt to ‘protect’ her - genie spent 12 years locked in bedroom during the day she was tied to a child’s potty chair in diapers: at night she was bound in a sleeping bag and placed in an enclosed crib with a cover made of metal screening - father was abusive towards her if she spoke and didn’t allow his wife and son to speak to her - genie was discovered at 13 she couldn’t stand erect and had a vocabulary of 20 words only understand her own name - never reached any sort of normal cognitive or emotional development

Answer 177

- to see if early separation from the primary caregiver was associated with behavioural disorders

Answer 178

- bowlby analysed case histories of 88 emotionally maladjusted children from 5-16 years who had been referred to a guidance clinic and were examined - 44 of the children were criminals- (stealing) - 44 of non criminal participants were used as a control group - bowlby interviewed the children and their families to create a record of early life experiences - bowlby suggested 14 of the ‘thieves’ were affection-less psychopaths - they lacked normal signs of affection shame or sense or responsibility

Answer 179

- bowlby identified 14 of the 44 thieves as affectionless psychopaths - 86% of these affectionless psychopaths had experienced early and prolonged deprivation - 17% of the ‘ other thieves’ had experienced such separations - 4% of the control group had experienced frequent early separations

Answer 180

- findings suggest a link between early separations and later social maladjustment - maternal deprivation hypothesis appears to lead to affectionless psychopathy and antisocial behaviour

Answer 181

- deprivation also includes emotional separation | - a parent may not able to provide emotional care therefore depriving the child of that care

Answer 182

- studied mothers who were severely depressed and found that 55% of their children was insecurely attached compared with 29% in the non-depressed group

Answer 183

- studied women who had experienced separation from mothers either from maternal death or temporary separation of more than a year - found 25% later experienced depression or an anxiety disorder - 15% who had no experience of separation - mental health problems greater for those women who experienced separation before 6 supporting bowlbys critical period - shows maternal deprivation can make individuals vulnerable to later effects

Answer 184

- to examine the long term effects of institutionalisation in a longitudinal study beginning in the early 90s called the ERA (English and Romanian adoptees)

Answer 185

- 165 children who had spent their early years in a Romanian orphanage formed the experimental group - 111 of these children were adopted before the age of 2 while the remaining 54 were adopted by the age of 4 - they were compared to a control group of 52 British children who were adopted before they were 6 months - the social, cognitive and physical development of all infants was examined at regular intervals (age 4,6,11 and 15) and interviews were conducted with adoptive parents and teaches

Answer 186

- at the point of adoption the Romanian orphans showed delayed development on all elements of social, cognitive and physical progress - they were physically smaller, weighed less on average and many were classified as mentally retarded - almost all the Romanian orphans who were adopted before the age of 6 months caught up on these measures of development when compared to the British control group - the Romanian children who were adopted after 6 months continued to show significant deficits in terms of social, cognitive and physical development - they were more likely to experience difficulties with making or maintaining peer relationships and were often categorised as having disinhibited attachment disorder

Answer 187

- institutionalisation can have severe long term effects on development especially if children aren’t provided with adequate emotional caregiving ie adopted by 2years

Answer 188

- to see if good quality care can make up for poor quality institutional experiences

Answer 189

- studied 111 Romanian orphans adopted by British families before 2 years - natural experiment - age of adoption was the naturally occurring IV - adopted before the age of 6 months - between 6 months-2 years - after the age of 2 (later adoptees)

Answer 190

- disinhibited attachment behaviour if adopted after 6 months old - children adopted before the age of 6 months rarely displayed disinhibited attachment

Answer 191

- more likely to recover if adopted into a caring environment at an earlier age

Answer 192

- form of insecure attachment where children don’t discriminate between people they choose as attachment figures - such children will treat near strangers with inappropriate familiarity and may be attention seeking

Answer 193

- internal working model - an infant learns what relationships are and how partners in a relationship behave towards each other from experience - this is used to predict the behaviour of other people in the future it also affects childhood friendships - Minnesota child - parent study - found continuity between early secure attachment and later emotional and social competence - affects childhood friendships, parenting and mental health

Answer 194

- securely attached infants= more inclined to have good quality peer relationships during childhood - infants with insecure attachment types are likely to have difficulties with making or maintaining friendships

Answer 195

- wanted to see if there was a correlation between the infants attachment type & their future approach to romantic relationships

Answer 196

- placed a love quiz in newspaper - had 2 components: a measure of attachment type and a love experience questionnaire which assessed individuals beliefs about romantic love eg whether it lasted forever whether it could be found easily - analysed 620 responses: 205 men 415 women - people aged from 14-82 - classified respondents according to ainsworths attachment types: - secure - anxious resistant - anxious avoidant - secure described love experiences as happy, friendly and trusting - able to accept their partner regardless of any faults - happy depending on others and comfortable if others are dependent on them were happy to be close to others - anxious resistant- experienced love as involving obsession a desire for reciprocation, emotional highs & lows, extreme sexual attraction & jealousy - worry that partners didn’t love them or might abandon them - desire for intense closeness could frighten others away - anxious avoidant- typically feared intimacy - emotional highs and lows and jealousy and believed they didn’t need love to be happy - were uncomfortable being close to and/or depending on others

Answer 197

- found a strikingly high correlation between the infant attachement types and the adult romantic love styles - 56%= secure - 25% = avoidant - 19%= resistant

Answer 198

- concluded there was evidence to support the concept of internal working model having a life long effect. - Did concede not everyone stayed true to their infant attachment style & some people did change as they grew older

Answer 199

- statistical infrequency - deviation from social norms - failure to function adequately - deviation from ideal mental health

Answer 200

- argues behaviours that are statistically rare should be seen as abnormal - what’s regarded as statistically rare depends on normal distribution: most people will be around the mean for the behaviour in question with declining amounts of people away from the mean - any individual who falls outside ‘the normal distribution’ - usually about 5% of the population are perceived as being abnormal

Answer 201

- intellectual ability - approximately 65% of adults in uk would have an IQ score 85 & 115 - considered to be normal as it is what most people score - only 2% of sample would have scores that fall at either extreme of the normal distribution curve ie there would be 2% with a very low score and 2% with a very high score - both ends of the spectrum would be considered abnormal because so few people achieve these scores

Answer 202

- each society has norms for what is seen as acceptable behaviour - any behaviour that varies from these norms may be seen as abnormal - definition draws a line between socially desirable & undesirable behaviours - those who don’t adhere to what society deems as acceptable in that community or society are labelled as abnormal

Answer 203

- antisocial personality disorder - when a person is impulsive and often aggressive pleasing only themselves - symptom- absence of prosocial internal standards failure to conform to lawful/ culturally ethical behaviour - psychopathic behaviour would be considered abnormal in a wide range of cultures because they don’t conform to our moral standards

Answer 204

- definition sees individuals as abnormal when their behaviour suggests they can’t cope with everyday life - behaviour is considered abnormal when it causes distress leading to dysfunction eg disrupting ability to work - rosenhan & seligman identified 7 features of abnormality: - suffering - maladaptiveness (danger to self) - vividness and unconventionality (stands out) - unpredictability and loss of control - irrationality/ incomprehensibility - causes observer discomfort - violates moral/ social standards

Answer 205

- schizophrenia - this is when a person can have disturbing hallucinations which can lead to bizarre behaviour - individuals experience distress & they can be irrational & unpredictable around other people

Answer 206

-definition perceived mental abnormality in a similar way to the perception of physical health and looks for an absence of wellbeing

Answer 207

- Jahoda identified 6 characteristics of what is to be normal and an absence of these characteristics indicates abnormality

Answer 208

- positive attitude towards self - resistance to stress - autonomy - accurate perception of reality - mastery of the environment - self actualisation

Answer 209

- positive attitude towards self- an individual should have high self esteem and a strong sense of identity - resistance to stress- individuals should have effective coping strategies for dealing with life’s stressors - autonomy- individuals should be independent and self reliant - accurate perception of reality- individuals should have a truthful and realistic view of the world - mastery of the environment- includes the ability to love, function at work and in interpersonal relationships, adjust to new situations and solve problems - self- actualisation- a person should be focused on the future and their self growth and development - the more the criteria an individual fails to meet the further away from normality they are

Answer 210

- depression- the symptoms of this disorder illustrates the definition: - sufferers generally have low self esteem ie a negative attitude to ones self - they can struggle to make decisions ie not autonomous - they experience high levels of stress concerning their low mood condition

Answer 211

- an anxiety disorder and is an irrational fear of a specific object or situation - 2.6% of uk have a clinical phobia

Answer 212

- excessive and unreasonable fear of a specific object or situation - anxiety and panic- individual recognises is disproportionate to the actual danger posed

Answer 213

- avoiding the phobic stimulus - interferes with persons usual social and occupational functioning over an extended period of time - some people may freeze or faint in the presence of the phobic stimulus

Answer 214

- irrational thinking about the phobic stimulus | - resistance to rational argument about the actual danger it poses

Answer 215

- depression is a mood disorder

Answer 216

- sadness and/or loss of interest and pleasure in activities a person is normally interested in - feelings of despair - low self esteem - lack of control - inward or outward directed anger

Answer 217

- difficulties in concentrating - decreased or increased activity patterns - excessive sleep or insomnia - increased or decreased appetite

Answer 218

- irrational negative thoughts about: - the self - the world - the future

Answer 219

- ocd is an anxiety disorder two components of ocd are recurrent , persistent & intrusive thoughts or impulses ( obsessions) & repetitive behaviours ( compulsions)

Answer 220

- anxiety over having no control over these thoughts or impulses - experience embarrassment and shame about their obsessions and compulsions

Answer 221

- repetitive behaviour eg hand washing reduces anxiety - but sometimes compulsive behaviour isn’t a response to obsessional thoughts & people may compulsively avoid certain stimuli

Answer 222

- thoughts or impulses

Answer 223

- Mowrer proposed the two process model to explain phobias which suggests that phobias are acquired as a result of classical conditioning & maintained by operant conditioning

Answer 224

- NS+UCS= UCR (fear) - NS=CS - CS+CR= fear

Answer 225

- operant conditioning explains how phobias are maintained. If fear is lowered by avoiding the phobic stimulus then avoidance behaviour becomes a negative reinforcer - eg someone was afraid of spiders because they’d been previously frightened by one the reduction in fear they experienced by avoiding spiders would lead them to continue avoiding them

Answer 226

- paired NS ( a white rat ) + UCS ( a loud noise) = UCR ( fear) - they did this to a baby known as little Albert - after making this pairing four times little Albert produced a conditioned fear response when they presented him with the rat in the absence of the UCS - this demonstrated that a fear response to an initially neutral stimulus could be classically conditioned

Answer 227

- SD uses counterbalancing to replace fear with relaxation - patients learn a relaxation technique like slow breathing or progressive muscle relaxation - the patient and therapist work out a hierarchy of phobic situations from least to most feared - the patient imagines the least feared scene whilst simultaneously relaxing when no anxiety is experienced fear has been desensitised - the therapist and patient work through the hierarchy in a systematic way until the patient experiences no anxiety when imagining the most feared scene - in in vivo SD the phobic is gradually exposed to the phobic stimulus rather then imagining it or using pictures ( in vitro) - SD is based on ‘reciprocal inhibition’ - being relaxed inhibits anxiety

Answer 228

- flooding involves a single exposure to the most feared situation - the patient is exposed to actual phobic stimulus or to virtual reality version of it in one long session until their anxiety has disappeared - although intense fear is initially experienced the fear response is eventually extinguished as adrenaline levels naturally decrease - a new stimulus- response link can be learned and the feared stimulus is now associated with a non- anxious response

Answer 229

- depression is a category of mood disorders which is often divided into two main types: unipolar and bipolar disorder - to be given a diagnosis sufferers are required to display at least 5 symptoms everyday for at least 2 weeks - beck suggested that there’s a cognitive explanation as to why some people are more vulnerable to depression than others - he suggested 3 parts to this cognitive vulnerability - faulty information processing - negative self schemas - the negative triad

Answer 230

- beck believed that people who are depressed make fundamental errors in logic - beck proposed that depressed people tend to selectively attend to the negative aspects of a situation and ignore the positive aspects

Answer 231

- a schema is a building block of knowledge a ‘package’ of ideas and information that has developed with experience - a self schema is a package of ideas that we have about ourselves - people who have become depressed have developed negative self schemas and therefore they interpret all the information about themselves in a negative way

Answer 232

- to investigate the thought processes of depressed people to establish if they make use of negative schemas

Answer 233

- thought processes were measured using the dysfunctional attitude scale ( DAS) - participants were asked to fill in a questionnaire by ticking whether they agreed or disagreed with a set of statements eg ‘people will probably think less of time if I make a mistake’

Answer 234

- found depressed participants made more negative assessments than non depressed people - when given some therapy to challenge and change their negative schemas there was an improvement in their self ratings

Answer 235

- depression involves the use of negative schemas

Answer 236

- becks negative triad model described how childhood experiences like continual parental criticism or rejection by others lead to negative cognitive schemas developing - these are activated in situations similar to those present when these schemas were learned - these systematic negative schemas & cognitive biases like generalisation lead to depression - people with depression become trapped in a cycle of negative thoughts they’ve a tendency to view themselves the world & the future in pessimistic ways the triad of impairments

Answer 237

- Ellis proposed that when an activating event leads to an irrational belief the consequences of this may be depression

Answer 238

- A- an action is affected by - B- and individuals beliefs which results in - C- a consequence -if beliefs are subject to cognitive biases then they can cause irrational thinking which may produce undesirable behaviours

Answer 239

- being fired at work A might lead to the irrational belief B that the company had it in for you which could lead to the consequence C of depression

Answer 240

- method for treating mental disorders based on both behavioural & cognitive techniques - therapist aims to make client aware of the relationship between thought emotion & actions - CBT can help people to change how they think & what they do to help them feel better - therapy also includes behavioural techniques like behavioural activation so encouraging patients to engage in those activities they’re avoiding

Answer 241

- beck developed a therapy to challenge the negative triad ( beliefs) of client - first client will be assessed to discover the severity of condition - therapist will establish a baseline prior to treatment to help monitor improvement - client is asked to provide info about how they perceive themselves the future & the world - therapist might ask client to do something to demonstrate their ability to succeed - clients are made aware of their negative views in this way irrational ideas can be replaced with more optimistic and rational beliefs - through this process irrational ideas can be replaced with more optimistic & balanced beliefs

Answer 242

- REBT extends ABC model to an ABCDEF model - D = dispute- challenge the thoughts - E = effect- see a more beneficial effect on thought and behaviour - F = feelings- the new feelings that are produced - therefore central technique of REBT is to identify & dispute patients irrational thoughts - REBT focuses on challenging or dispute irrational self- defeating thoughts & replacing them with effective rational beliefs

Answer 243

- logical disputing = does thinking this way make sense? - empirical disputing = what is the evidence for this belief? - pragmatic disputing = how is this belief likely to help me? - clients complete homework assignments between therapy sessions like asking someone out on a date when they had feared rejection - Homework enables irrational beliefs to be tested against reality empirical disputing - behavioural activation encourages clients to engage in pleasurable activities that they used to enjoy - therapists provide clients with unconditional positive regard to convince clients of their value as humans - another feature is for client to become more active since being active leads to rewards that are an antidote to depression

Answer 244

- they wanted to discover if people with psychological problems had irrational attitudes

Answer 245

- 2 groups of participants were asked if they agreed with following statements identified by ellis as irrational - it’s essential that one be loved or approved of by virtually everyone in the community - one must be perfectly competent adequate and achieving in order to consider oneself worthwhile - one group consisted of people who had been diagnosed with anxiety - other group had no psychological problems - they were defined as normal

Answer 246

- 65% of the anxious participants agreed with statement a - 2% of non anxious participants didn’t - 80% of anxious participants agreed with statement b - 25% of non anxious participants didn’t

Answer 247

- people with emotional problems think in irrational ways

Answer 248

- focused on identifying specific genes which are implicated to an OCD - OCD is a polygenic condition which means that several genes are involved two examples: COMT and SERT gene

Answer 249

- gene is part of the chromosome of an organism that carries info in the form of DNA

Answer 250

- COMT gene regulates the neurotransmitter dopamine which may contribute to OCD. - a less active form of this gene is more common in OCD patients and produces higher dopamine levels

Answer 251

- affects the transport of serotonin creating lower levels of this neurotransmitter - low levels of serotonin have been implicated with OCD

Answer 252

- chemical substances that play an important part in the working of the nervous system by transmitting nerve impulses across a synapse

Answer 253

- a neurotransmitter in the brain which effects on motivation and drive

Answer 254

- a neurotransmitter which is believed to have an effect on mood regulation

Answer 255

- each gene only creates a vulnerability ( a diathesis) for OCD - Other factors like childhood experience provide the trigger ( stress) for the condition to develop

Answer 256

- view that physical & psychological characteristics are determined by the behaviour of the nervous system in particular the brain as well as individual neurons

Answer 257

- high dopamine levels and low serotonin levels are associated with OCD - antidepressant drugs which increase serotonin activity reduce the symptoms of OCD

Answer 258

- the OFC of the frontal lobes and the caudate nucleus part of the basal ganglia are thought to be abnormal in people with OCD - damage to the caudate nucleus fails to suppress minor ‘ worry’ signals from the OFC creating a worry circuit

Answer 259

- serotonin plays a key role in the operation of these structures & low serotonin levels may cause them to malfunction - dopamine is the basal ganglias main neurotransmitter so high dopamine levels lead to overactivity of this region

Answer 260

- biological treatments for OCD are based on the assumption that drugs can be used to rebalance neurochemical imbalances in sufferers - eg as low levels of serotonin are associated with ocd SSRIs have been used to try to address this imbalance

Answer 261

-aim to restore chemical imbalances in the brain since this is assumed to be the main cause of the disorder - 2 types of drug therapy are commonly used in the treatment of OCD: - antidepressant drugs - anti- anxiety drugs

Answer 262

- S - selective - S - serotonin - R - reuptake - I - inhibited - SSRIs work on increasing certain neurotransmitter in the brain by preventing the reabsorption of serotonin - this way SRRIs effectively increase its levels in the synapse & thus continue to stimulate the post synaptic neuron

Answer 263

- drugs are often used alongside CBT - drugs reduce the sufferers emotional symptoms like anxiety or depression - means that patient can then engage more effectively with CBT - some sufferers may respond best to CBT alone without the need for medication

Answer 264

- SSRI antidepressants eg Prozac are most commonly used drugs to reduce anxiety associated with OCD - they block reuptake of serotonin in the presynaptic membrane increasing serotonin concentration at receptor sites on the post synaptic membrane - since low serotonin levels are implicated in the brains ‘worry circuit’ increasing serotonin may have the effect of normalising this circuit

Answer 265

- anafranil block the transporter mechanism that reabsorbs both serotonin & noradrenaline into the presynaptic cells that released them - effect of this is to increase both serotonin & noradrenaline levels - tricyclics have more side effects than SSRIs and so are used as a second line treatment when SSRIs haven’t been effective

Answer 266

- benzodiazepines are commonly used to reduce anxiety & are also used to treat OCD - trade names: - Librium - Xanax - Valium - diazepam - they enhance the activity of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) which has a general quietening effect on many brain neurons - when GABA locks onto receptors channels are opened to increase the flow of chlorine ions into the neuron - makes it harder for neuron to be stimulated by other neurotransmitters thus slowing down its activity & induced feelings of relaxation

Answer 267

- wilhelm Wundt was the first person to call himself a psychologist he believed that the human mind could be studied scientifically using a technique called introspection

Answer 268

- introspection means ‘looking into’ & is the process by which a person gains knowledge about their mental & emotional states - Wundt believed that with appropriate training, mental process like memory & perception could be observed systematically - participants were presented with a stimulus eg a visual image & asked to describe their inner thought processes - Wundt then compared these responses to generate theories of perception this is a structuralist approach

Answer 269

- empiricism is the belief that knowledge comes from observation & experience alone - when Wundt applied empirical methods to the study of human beings psychology began to emerge as a science

Answer 270

- wundts new ‘scientific’ approach to psychology was based on two major assumptions: 1- all behaviour is caused 2 - it’s possible to predict behaviour in different conditions - the process used to explore these assumptions became known as the scientific method

Answer 271

- the scientific method uses investigative methods that are: - objective - systematic - replicable - objective- basing findings on fact rather than opinion - systematic- follow logical pathway - replicable - the ability to repeat a study and achieve the same findings

Answer 272

- phenomenon that can be observed and measured | - testing scientifically

Answer 273

- step 1- ask a question - step 2 - state a hypothesis - step 3 - conduct an experiment - step 4 - analyse the results - step 5 - make a conclusion

Answer 274

- 1description - tells us ‘’what’’ occurred - 2 explanation- tells us ‘’why’’ a behaviour or a mental process occurred - 3 prediction- identifies conditions under which a future behaviour or mental process is likely to occur - 4 change - applies psychological knowledge to prevent unwanted behaviour and to bring about desired change

Answer 275

- early influences included Rene descartes and his concept of Cartesian dualism - Cartesian dualism means that the mind and body are separate entities the brain isn’t the same as the mind

Answer 276

- behaviour is determined by the environment - behaviourism aligns itself strongly with the scientific method - behaviourists suggested the basic processes that cause learning are the same in all species - behaviour is the result of stimulus-response (ie all behaviour no matter how complex can be reduced to a simple stimulus response features)

Answer 277

- SLT is learning through observation of others and imitating behaviours that are rewarded - SLT is based on the idea of observational learning: - learning occurs through the observation & imitation of behaviour performed by role models who model behaviour in a social environment

Answer 278

- behaviourism is learned as a result of the observations of others ie it’s determined - explanations of behaviour emphasise the role of nurture more than nature - social learning aligns itself with the scientific method but research can lack validity

Answer 279

- role models are those people/ characters that particularly children look up to

Answer 280

- is a form of learning in which a person (the model) performs a behaviour & another individual observes them - if the person observing the behaviour sees the person as a role model they will identify with them

Answer 281

- involves associating with the qualities, characteristics & views of role models to become more like that person

Answer 282

- the process of copying an observed behaviour and is more likely to occur when identification takes place - children are more likely to identify with and learn from models who are similar to them

Answer 283

- children who observe a model receiving rewards are also much more likely to imitate their behaviour

Answer 284

- attention - retention - reproduction - motivation

Answer 285

- attention- the child must be able to pay attention to the model - retention- the child must be able to remember what the model was doing - reproduction- the child must be able to reproduce the behaviour - motivation- the child must have the motivation to reproduce that behaviour

Answer 286

- enable the observer to store mental representations of this behaviour and its probable consequences

Answer 287

- to investigate whether aggression can be learned through social learning theory principals

Answer 288

- 72 children: - 36 male + 36 female - children aged between 3 & 6 years were put into one of three groups for 10 months - 1- aggressive model- child played in a room while an adult hit and shouted at the Bobo doll group was subdivided by the gender of the child and the adult model creating 4 conditions - 2- non aggressive model- child played in a room while an adult played quietly with a construction set group was subdivided by the gender of child and the adult model creating 4 conditions - 3- control group- child didn’t see a model children were deliberately frustrated by being taken into another room where they were told that they couldn’t play with any toys - then they were placed alone in a room with a range of aggressive toys (mallet, gun) and non aggressive toys (dolls,crayons) and the bobo doll for 20mins whilst being observed

Answer 289

- children who saw the aggressive model produced more aggressive acts than those in either of the two groups - boys imitated same sex models more than girls - Girls imitated more physical aggression they saw male models & more verbal aggression if they saw female models

Answer 290

- aggressive behaviour can be learned in children through observation & imitation of a model

Answer 291

- mental processes can be studied scientifically - we can make inferences about the mind in order to understand & explain private processes like perception & memory - the mind is an information processor- cognitive psychologists try to build models of processing - thought processes determine behaviour ie some degree of control over behaviour - explanations of behaviour emphasise the role of nature & nurture

Answer 292

- memory - attention - perception - emotion - awareness - these processes can’t be studied directly but must be understood by inference and logical reasoning from measuring observable behaviour

Answer 293

- memory- how we store info to use in the future - attention- how we choose what to think about - perception- how we turn the info from our eyes into a usable form - emotion

Answer 294

- schema theory is a information processing model that emphasises how perception & memory are shaped by cognitive frameworks - schemas are mental frameworks of info that we use to organise past experiences & to interpret & respond to new situations - they’re cognitive frameworks that help organise & interpret info in brain - They guide our expectations from a given situation/event/ person & subsequently our behaviour in order to meet those expectations - schemas are an example of top down information processing because they provide us with expectations about what will happen in the world rather than requiring us to process every single detail all of the time - however schemas can lead to errors in information processing like prejudice and discrimination

Answer 295

-cognitive approach studies the mind as an information processor with inputs,processing, storage, retrieval & outputs eg MSM - another example is in a computer model of memory we input info via our senses working memory is like the computers RAM (random access memory) and long term memory is similar to info stored on a hard drive

Answer 296

- to investigate the effects of schema on participants recall of a story. A schema includes expectations, attitudes, prejudices and stereotypes. - this experiment was based to test Bartlett schema theory which states that memory involves active reconstruction - therefore parts of the event recalled are real but other bits consist of our knowledge of the world and past memories

Answer 297

- 20 English participants took part in a natural experiment - they were presented with a range of stories from different cultures making it difficult for western participants to understand fully their significance - one of the stories was the native Indian story called ‘the war of the ghosts’. They were then asked to recall the story after periods of time

Answer 298

- participants recall of the story got shorter and shorter after multiple presentations - after about 6 presentations it had been reduced from 330 words to 180 - participants frequently added in their own interpretations eg the reference to the canoe was often changed to a boat and the whole theme of ghosts was often forgotten

Answer 299

- accuracy was rare in recalls - the changes in the recalled story showed that the participants were actively reconstructing it using their existing schemas - the recalled story gradually became more western ie changing canoe to boat and forgetting about ghosts as they’re not an important feature of western culture - this indicates that memory is influenced by our existing knowledge which in turn is created by the culture in which we live

Answer 300

- cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes - cognitive neuroscience tries to bridge the gap between the cognitive and biological approaches - cognitive neuroscience studies the living brain using brain imaging technology like PET and FMRI showing which parts of the brain are active during different tasks

Answer 301

- broca carried out a case study which identified how damage to part of the frontal lobe (structure) could permanently damage speech production (mental processes) - his patient named ‘’tan’’ as that was the only word he could say - after tan died broca studied his brain and discovered damage to a specific area and from this he was able to establish that the damage area must be responsible for speech production

Answer 302

- FMRI and PET scans scientists have been able to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes - eg in research that requires the use of episodic and semantic memory tulving et al were able to show how these different types of ltm may be located on opposite sides of the pre frontal cortex

Answer 303

- scanning techniques also have proved useful in establishing the neurological cause of some mental disorders - it’s also expanded recently to include the use of computer generated models designed to ‘read’ the brain - this has led to the development of mind mapping techniques known as ‘brain fingerprinting’ which could be used to analyse the brain wave patterns of eyewitnesses to determine if they’re lying in court

Answer 304

- physiological and/or inherited factors determine behaviour - explanations of behaviour emphasise the role of nature more than nurture - biological approach aligns itself strongly with the scientific method - an understanding of brain structure and function can explain our thoughts and behaviour - from a biological perspective the mind lives in the brain meaning all our thoughts, feelings and behaviour have a physical basis

Answer 305

- biological approach views humans as biological organisms & provides biological explanations of all aspects of psychological functioning

Answer 306

- genes carry instructions for a particular characteristic eg intelligence

Answer 307

- geneotype is the genetic code in DNA

Answer 308

- the phenotype is the physical appearance that results from this inherited information - how these characteristics develop depends on an interaction between genes and the environment

Answer 309

- biological psychologists believe that the structure of organs such as the brain, CNS, PNS and endocrine system determine our behaviour - many examples of human behaviour are controlled by neuronal action including: - eating ( feeling hungry + satiated ) - breathing

Answer 310

- research has shown that the different lobes of the brain are linked with general functions eg - occipital lobe associated with visual perception - parietal lobe linked to the processing of sensory info - another example case study of phineas gage

Answer 311

- biological psychologists also recognise the role of chemicals in determining behaviour - at the synapse signals are sent between neurons by chemicals called neurotransmitters which are molecules that transmit messages from one neuron to the next - they diffuse across the synapse and bind to receptors where they may cause excitation or inhibition of an impulse - behaviour can also be influenced by hormones, chemicals produced by endocrine glands like the pituitary gland. Hormones are secreted directly into the bloodstream where they travel to their target cells causing a physiological reaction - imbalances in the number of neurotransmitters are associated with atypical ( abnormal) behaviour eg too little serotonin has been associated with depression and too much dopamine has been associated with schizophrenia

Answer 312

- behaviour genetics study whether behavioural characteristics eg intelligence etc are inherited as physical characteristics - twin studies are used to see how likely it is that these characteristics are inherited by comparing concordance rates between the twin pairs: to see how much the twins share the same characteristics - if identical (MZ) twins are found to have higher concordance rates than non identical (DZ) twins it would suggest a genetic basis as MZ twins share 100% of each other’s genes whilst DZ twins share 50%

Answer 313

- Darwin’s theory of evolution describes how behaviour that make individuals more likely to survive and reproduce are passed on through genes - as a result these genes and their associated behaviours become more common in future generations this is the process of natural selection - natural selection ensures that characteristics which provide an evolutionary advantage like survival and enhanced reproductive chances are passed from one generation to the next

Answer 314

- the unconscious mind has an important influence on behaviour - personality has a tripartite structure and interaction between these three parts determine behaviour - the importance of early childhood experiences there are 5 psychosexual stages of development that determine adult processing - defence mechanisms are used by the ego to keep the id in check and reduce anxiety - nature and nurture - not scientific

Answer 315

- psychodynamic theories emphasise change & development in the individual, unconscious motives & desired & the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping personality - the foundations of the psychodynamic approach were laid by Freud - he proposed the idea of the unconscious

Answer 316

- Freud suggested that the part of our mind that we know about and are aware of - the conscious mind - most of our mind is made up of the unconscious: - a vast storehouse of biological drives and instincts that has a significant influence on our behaviour and personality - the unconscious also contains threatening and disturbing memories that have been repressed - under the surface of our conscious mind is the preconscious which includes thoughts and ideas which we may become aware of during dreams or parapaxes slip of tongue - calling mum instead of miss

Answer 317

- the id - the ego - the superego

Answer 318

- primitive part of our personality - operates on the pleasure principle- gets what it wants - mass of unconscious drives & instincts - only the id is present at birth - id is entirely selfish and demands instant gratification of its needs - wants pleasure + to avoid pain

Answer 319

- works on the reality principle - the mediator between the id and superego - ego develops around 2 years - it’s role is to reduce conflict between demands of the id and superego - manages this by employing a number of defence mechanisms

Answer 320

- formed at the end of phallic stage age 5 - internalised sense of right and wrong - based on morality principle & it represents the moral standards of the child’s same sex parent & punishes the ego for wrongdoing through guilt

Answer 321

- psychodynamic theory states that events in our childhood have a great influence on our adult lives shaping our personality - Freud claimed that child development occurred in 5 stages

Answer 322

- oral - anal - phallic - latent - genital - each stage apart from latency is marked by a different conflict that the child must resolve in order to process successfully to the next stage

Answer 323

- age 0-18 months - pleasure centre on the mouth - child is satisfied & gratified through sucking & biting on the breast or bottle - over or under indulgence can lead to fixation

Answer 324

- nail biting, pen chewing, smoking + over eating - oral- aggressive: have a biting wit & verbally highly critical - oral passive: passive, dependent personality

Answer 325

- age 18-36 months - pleasure centre in anus - child learns to defer gratification during potty training - too harsh or too lenient training can lead to fixation

Answer 326

- anal retentive- obsessively tidy, holds things in, mean | - anal expulsive- very untidy/ disorganised, impulsive, generous

Answer 327

- age 3-6 years - pleasure centre is the genitals - the Oedipus+ Electra complex’s occur here - child has sexual desires for their opposite sex parent & can only resolve them by identifying with same sex parent - resolution of these complexes forms their gender identity

Answer 328

- difficulty with relationships - male may be searching for mother figure - female may be searching for father figure

Answer 329

- age 6 years - puberty - sex drive is present but dormant - intellectual and social development takes place at this time

Answer 330

- age puberty onwards | - attraction to opposite sex starts if the child has successfully negotiated the other stages

Answer 331

- anxiety- could need psychoanalysis

Answer 332

- any psychosexual conflict that’s unresolved leads to fixation where the child becomes ‘stuck’ & carries certain behaviours & conflicts associated with that stage through to adult life

Answer 333

-Oedipus conflict is an important psychosexual conflict that occurs during the phallic stage

Answer 334

- in the young boy the Oedipus complex conflict arises because the boy develops sexual desires for his mother - he wants to possess his mother exclusively & get rid of his father to enable him to do so - boy thinks if his father found out, he would take away what he loves most- his penis during the phallic stage - boy develops castration anxiety - boy then sets out to resolve this problem by imitating & joining in masculine dad type behaviours aka identification - this is how the 3-5 year old boy resolves his Oedipus complex - the consequence of this is that the boy takes on the male gender role & adopts an ego ideal & values that become the superego

Answer 335

- for girls the Electra complex isn’t as detailed as the Oedipus complex - girl desires the father but realises that she doesn’t have a penis - leads to the development of penis envy and wish to be a boy - girl resolves this by repressing her desire for her father & substituting the wish for a penis with wish for a baby - girl blames her mother for her ‘castrated state ‘ & this creates tension - girl then represses her feelings to remove the tension & identifies with the mother to take on the female gender role

Answer 336

- to give an account of a boy who was suffering from a phobia of horses & range of other symptoms & to use this case to illustrate the existence of the Oedipus complex

Answer 337

- clinical case study - participant is a patient undergoing therapy - Freud’s direct input was very limited & he met Hans no more than twice - Hans father conducted regular discussions with Freud who analysed the info in line with his theory

Answer 338

- Hans took interest in his penis and played with it regularly and his mother got angry and threatened to send for a doctor to cut it off - Hans developed castration anxiety - at some time he saw a horse collapse and die and noticed that animals had large genitals and assumed that both his parents did also - at 4 Hans had a fear of horses and specifically that a white horse would bite him. Hans father noted that his fear seemed to relate to the size of the horses penis and dissatisfaction with his own size - at the same time of phobia a conflict developed between the father and Hans over him climbing into his parents bed in the morning to cuddle his mother which the father objected to - Hans phobia worsened he didn’t leave the house + suffered general anxiety attacks - Hans had a fantasy about 2 giraffes one cried out to the other - age 5 Hans phobia lessened becoming limited to white horses who wore a noseband and blinkers - symbolised Hans father moustache + glasses. The phobia then disappeared altogether - the end of the phobia was marked by 2 fantasies : - he had several children when his father asked who the father was Hans said ‘’mummy and you’re the granddaddy’’ - the plumber had come and removed his bottom + penis replacing them with new and larger ones

Answer 339

- horse represented Hans father - horses made good father symbols because they have large penises - Hans felt castration anxiety triggered by his mothers threat & fear of his father caused by his banishing of Hans from the marital bed - the giraffes in the fantasy represent his parents. The large giraffe that cries out represented Hans father objecting to having Hans in the bed & the crumpled giraffe was his mother crumpled representing her genitals. The large giraffe with its erect neck could have symbolised his fathers penis - children fantasy represents a friendly resolution of the Oedipus complex in which Hans replaces his father as his mothers main love object but the father still had a role - the plumber fantasy represents identification with the father he sees himself growing a large penis like his father and becoming like him

Answer 340

- the ego uses many defence mechanisms ( unconscious strategies) to protect it from id superego conflicts - excessive use of defence mechanisms will over time result in the ego becoming increasingly detached from reality and in time can cause psychological disorder - psychoanalysis involves effort to understand defences and unconscious motives driving self destructive behaviour

Answer 341

- repression - denial - displacement

Answer 342

- repression - forcing a distressing memory from the conscious mind - eg an individual forgetting the trauma of their pet dying

Answer 343

- refusing to believe something because it’s too painful to acknowledge the reality - eg continuing to turn up for work even though you’ve been fired

Answer 344

- transferring feelings from true source of distressing emotion onto a substitute target - eg slamming the door after a row with your girlfriend

Answer 345

- all humans have free will so behaviourism is under our control - humanistic psychology rejects the use of the scientific method - focuses on nature and nurture - approach focuses on the personal worth of an individual, human values and the creative, active nature of human beings - people are motivated to self actualise & have the ability of self actualisation

Answer 346

- founding figures - Abraham Maslow + Carl Rogers - humanistic psychology intensively focuses on discovering what it means to be fully human - humanistic psychologists insists that the other approaches in psychology are reductionist deterministic & as a result can’t explain the holistic complexity of human behaviour

Answer 347

- this is the notion that humans can make choices and aren’t determined by biological or external forces

Answer 348

- Maslow described a hierarchy of needs in which people must fulfill each level before moving to the next: - physiological- air, food, water, clothing, shelter, sleep - safety- resources, employment, family+ health - love/belonging- from friends, family + sexual partner - esteem- self esteem + respect from others - self actualisation- spiritually, creativity + acceptance of world, morality, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice

Answer 349

- people who attain self actualisation are creative and accepting and have peak experiences of extreme inspiration & ecstasy - not everyone will reach the top however there are important psychological barriers that may prevent a person from reaching their potential - personal growth is concerned with developing and changing a person to become fulfilled, satisfied and goal orientated

Answer 350

- Rogers pointed out that individuals strive to achieve their ideal selves because they’re motivated towards self improvement - “ each client has within him or herself the vast resources for self understanding for altering his or herself - concept, attitudes and self directed behaviour and that these resources can be tapped by providing a definable climate of facilitative attitudes”

Answer 351

- feelings of self worth - unconditional positive regard from other people - both of these emerge from childhood interactions with parents and good relationships later with friends and partners. An individuals self worth has a direct impact on psychological well being - humans have a basic need to feel nurtured and valued by significant people in their lives such as parents - love praise and acceptance - if this is given freely without conditions (unconditional positive regard) then people will develop a healthy sense of self worth recognising their abilities and difficulties - children who receive negative regard such as criticism and blame develop low self esteem - to avoid this the parents should blame the behaviour not the child

Answer 352

- conditions of worth are a perception that acceptance from others depends on meeting their expectations - so when an individual is the recipient of unconditional positive regard they develop conditions of worth as a result eg good in exams - parents are often the people who provide a child with unconditional positive regard during their upbringing some can impose - conditional positive regard - so children must be behave in certain ways - possible that a person will only feel self acceptance should they meet these conditions of worth set by others which can produce a feeling of incongruence

Answer 353

- the more similar our self concept and our ideal self the greater our psychological health and state of congruence - most people experience some incongruence and use defence mechanisms to feel less threatened - but when there’s an agreement between an individuals self concept and their ideal self they’re said to be in a state of congruence

Answer 354

- self concept is the way you think you are | - ideal self is the way you would like to be

Answer 355

- Rogers believed that people can creatively solve their own problems and become more authentic (true to self) - humanistic therapists provide empathy and unconditional positive regard facilitating the client in finding self actualisation

Answer 356

- q - sort assessment developed by Stephenson was quickly adopted into client centred therapy by rogers - q sort was the measurement of a persons congruence/ incongruence - a q sort is a series of cards each containing a personal statement - eg ‘’needs recognition from others’’ or ‘’ is self defeating’’ - the person sorts this statement into a forced distribution under two sets of conditions: - a) to describe their ‘’ real self’’ - b) to describe their ‘’ideal self’’

Answer 357

- determinism refers to the belief that behaviour is caused by forces other than the individuals will to do something - eg in the different approaches: - reinforcement- environmental determinism (behaviourist approach) - neurochemical or genetic factors- biological determinism - unconscious factors- psychic determinism (psychodynamic approach) - free will - is the alternative end of the spectrum as seen in the humanistic approach where the individual is see as being capable of self- determination

Answer 358

- the nature nurture debate considers to what extent human behaviour is the product of a persons genes (nature) or experiences (nurture) - eg the behaviourist approach takes a nurture stance but biological approach looks at the influence of innate factors ie nature

Answer 359

- the 6 approaches take different positions in relation to their commitment to the scientific method - behaviourist, social learning, cognitive and biological approaches use objective scientific methods like experiments - psychodynamic approach is based on more case studies and subjective interpretation - humanistic psychology rejects a scientific approach to research as human consciousness and experience are too complex

Answer 360

- CNS consists of brain & spinal cord | -

Answer 361

- is a complex network of nerve cells | - carries messages to & from the brain & spinal cord to different parts of the body to communicate with each other

Answer 362

- brain is makes up about 2% of the body’s weight - this organ has many billions of neural cross- connections - the brain oversees the workings of the body while it’s higher functions provide us with consciousness and make us who we are

Answer 363

- the nervous system is divided into: - central nervous system- CNS - peripheral nervous system - PNS

Answer 364

- CNS is made up of brain + spinal cord - 2 main functions: - the control of behaviour - the regulation of the body’s physiological processes

Answer 365

- CNS received info from the sensory receptors in the sense organs via sensory neurons and sends messages to the muscles and glands via motor neurons - simple reflexes are relayed via the spinal cord without brain involvement

Answer 366

- spinal cord is a bundle of nerve cells that are attached to the brain and run the length of the spinal cord

Answer 367

- main function is to relay information between the brain and the rest of the body - this allows the brain to monitor and regulate bodily processes such as: - digestion - breathing - to coordinate voluntary movements

Answer 368

- spinal cord is connected to different parts of the body by pairs of spinal nerves which connect with specific muscles and glands - eg spinal nerves which branch off from the thoracic region of the spinal cord carry messages to and from the chest and parts of the abdomen

Answer 369

- contains circuits of nerve cells that enable us to perform some simple reflexes without the direct involvement of the brain eg pulling your hand away from something hot - if the spinal cord is damaged areas supplied by spinal nerves below the damaged site will be cut off from the brain and will stop functioning

Answer 370

- 4 main areas: - cerebrum - cerebellum - diencephalon - brain stem - cerebrum- left & right cerebral hemispheres from two halves - right & left hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum & communicate with each other via the corpus callosum

Answer 371

- 4 different lobes: - frontal lobe - occipital lobe - temporal lobe - parietal lobe

Answer 372

- involved in thought and speech production | - executive functions- thinking, memory, behaviour+ movement

Answer 373

- is involved in visual processing, sight, visual reception + visual interpretation

Answer 374

- processing auditory info - encoding of memory - there are left & right temporal lobes - left temporal lobe: understanding language, learning, memorising, forming speech & remembering verbal info - right temporal lobe: learning & memorising non verbal info eg drawings + music

Answer 375

- is responsible for processing somatosensory info from the body including: - touch - pain - temperature - sense of limb position - parietal lobes are also involved integrating info from different modalities

Answer 376

- cerebellum sits beneath the back of the cerebrum - it’s involved in controlling a persons motor skills, balance and coordinating the muscles to allow precise movements - abnormalities of this area can result in problems including: - speech - motor problems - epilepsy

Answer 377

- lies beneath the cerebrum and on top of the brain stem - made up of: - thalamus - hypothalamus

Answer 378

- a relay of impulses from sensory neurons - so it relays nerve impulses coming from the senses, routing them to the appropriate part of the brain where they can be processed

Answer 379

- hypothalamus regulates body temperature, hunger & thirst - also acts as link between the endocrine system & the nervous system controlling the release of hormones from the pituitary gland

Answer 380

- is responsible for regulating the automatic functions that are essential for life including: breathing, heartbeat and swallowing - motor + sensory neurons travel through the brain stem allowing impulses to pass between the brain + spinal cord

Answer 381

- PNS consists of all other nerves in the body including: - somatic nervous system-( sensory neurons + motor neurons) - autonomic nervous system- ( controls involuntary bodily functions like heartbeat + digestion) - this function of this part of the nervous system is to relay nerve impulses from the CNS- brain + spinal cord to the rest of the body and from the body back to the CNS

Answer 382

- made up of: - 12 cranial nerves - nerves that emerge directly from the underside of the brain - 31 spinal nerves- nerves that emerge from the spinal cord

Answer 383

- made up of: - 12 cranial nerves - nerves that emerge directly from the underside of the brain - 31 spinal nerves- nerves that emerge from the spinal cord - these nerves contain both motor and sensory neurons: - sensory neurons > to CNS - motor neurons > from CNS

Answer 384

- sensory neurons relay messages to the CNS | - motor neurons relay info from the CNS to other areas of the body

Answer 385

- is also involved in reflex actions without the involvement of the CNS which allows the reflex to occur very quickly

Answer 386

- ANS has 2 parts: - sympathetic nervous system - parasympathetic nervous system - both of these tend to regulate the same organs but have opposite effects - this is because of the neurotransmitters associated with each section: - sympathetic uses noradrenaline (stimulating effects) - parasympathetic uses acetylcholine (inhibiting effects)

Answer 387

- gut - slows digestion - salivary gland - inhibits saliva production - heart - increases heart rate - liver- stimulates glucose production - bladder- inhibits urination (relaxes bladder) - eye- dilates pupils - lungs- dilates bronchi

Answer 388

- gut - increases digestion - salivary gland- increases saliva production - heart - decreases heart rate - liver- stimulates bile production - bladder- decreases urination (contracts the bladder) - eye - constricts dilation - lungs - constricts bronchi

Answer 389

- controls the fight or flight emergency responses - noradrenaline is the main neurotransmitter which increases heart rate, dilates blood vessels and pupils and slows down non emergency processes like digestion

Answer 390

- neurons from the SNS travel to virtually every organ and gland within the body preparing the body for the rapid action necessary when the individual is under threat/ in danger - eg the SNS causes the body to: - increase in heart rate allows for greater blood flow to skeletal muscles - increase pupil size which lets in more light for better vision - glycogen stored in the liver is converted to glucose for energy - bronchial tubes in lungs dilate for greater oxygen intake - sweat glands stimulated to produce more sweat - adrenal medulla stimulated to release adrenaline - it slows bodily processes that are less important in emergencies like digestion + urination

Answer 391

- PNS relaxes a person again once the emergency has passed PNS slows the heartbeat down and reduces blood pressure and digestion will begin again as the PNS is involved with energy conservation and digestion- referred to as the body’s rest and digest system

Answer 392

- neurons are cells specialised to carry info throughout the body - they consist of a cell body, dendrites and an axon - nerve impulses travel along the axon in the form of an electrical signal called an action potential

Answer 393

- 3 main types of neurons: - sensory - relay - motor

Answer 394

- sensory neurons carry nerve impulses from sensory receptors to the spinal cord + brain - CNS - sensory receptors= eyes, ears, tongue & skin - where these nerve impulses reach the brain they’re translated into ‘sensations’ like vision, hearing, taste and touch - but not all sensory neurons reach the brain as some neurons stop at the spinal cord allowing for quick reflex actions

Answer 395

- connect sensory and motor neurons and are found in CNS- found between sensory input and motor output/ response and allow sensory and motor neurons to communicate

Answer 396

- motor neurons are located in the PNS and have long axons which carry nerve impulses to muscles triggering muscle contraction - when motor neurons are stimulated they release neurotransmitters that bind to the receptors on muscles to trigger a response which lead to movement

Answer 397

- a long slender fibre that carries nerve impulses in the form of an electrical signal aka action potential away from the cell body towards the axon terminals where the neuron ends - most axons are surrounded by a myelin sheath (except for relay neurons) which insulates the axon so that the electrical impulses travel faster along the axon - the axon terminal connects the neuron to other neurons (or directly to organs) using a process called synaptic transmission - the long extension of a neuron that carries nerve impulses away from the body of the cell axon terminals - the hair - like ends of the axon

Answer 398

- cell body of a neuron - contains nucleus (soma)

Answer 399

- receive signals from other neurons or from sensory receptor cells - these are typically connected to the cell body which is often referred to as the ‘control centre’ of the neuron as it contains the nucleus - dendrites branching structure of neuron that receives messages (attached to the cell body)

Answer 400

- fatty substance that surrounds + protects some nerve fibres

Answer 401

- one of the many gaps in the myelin sheath- where action potential occurs during saltatory conduction along the axon

Answer 402

- cells that produce myelin - located within the myelin sheath

Answer 403

- neurons must transmit info both within the neuron and from one neuron to the next - the dendrites of neurons receive info from sensory receptors or other neurons - this info is then passed down to the cell body and on to the axon - once the info has arrived at the axon it travels down its length in the form of an electrical signal aka action potential

Answer 404

- 3 types of neurons are arranged in circuits and networks, the simplest of which is the reflex arc - in a simple reflex arc eg knee jerk, a stimulus is detected by a receptor cell which synapses with a sensory neuron - sensory neuron carries the impulse from the site of the stimulus to the CNS where it synapses with a relay neuron - relay neuron synapses with a motor neuron which carries the nerve impulse out to an effector such as a muscle which responds by contracting

Answer 405

- neurons communicate with each other within groups known as neural networks - each neuron is separated from the next by a tiny gap called the synapse - signals within neurons are transmitted electrically - signals between neurons are transmitted chemically across the synapse

Answer 406

- info is passed down the axon of the neuron as an electrical impulse aka action potential - once the action potential reaches the end of the axon it needs to be transferred to another neuron or tissue - it must cross over a gap between the presynaptic neuron and post synaptic neuron- aka synaptic gap - at the end of the neuron (in the axon terminal) are the synaptic vesicles which contains chemical messengers known as neurotransmitters - when action potential reaches these synaptic vesicles they release their contents of neurotransmitters - these neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the synaptic gap and bind to specialised receptors in the membrane of the postsynaptic neuron where they trigger a new action potential - neurotransmitters are removed from the synaptic gap by reuptake into the presynaptic neuron for recycling or they may be broken down by enzymes - some drugs affect the rate of reuptake or breakdown of neurotransmitters eg SSRIs affect the reuptake of serotonin

Answer 407

- excitatory neurotransmitters make the post synaptic cell more likely to fire - eg if an excitatory neurotransmitter like noradrenaline or acetylcholine binds to the post synaptic receptors it will cause an electrical charge in the cell membrane which results in an excitatory post synaptic potential (EPSP) which makes the post synaptic cell more likely to fire

Answer 408

- inhibitory neurotransmitters make the post synaptic cell less likely to fire - eg if an inhibitory neurotransmitter like GABA binds to the post synaptic receptors it will result in an inhibitory post synaptic potential (IPSP) which makes the post synaptic cell less likely to fire

Answer 409

- nerve cells can be either EPSP or IPSP at the same time - the likelihood of the cell firing is determined by adding up the excitatory and inhibitory synaptic input - the next sum of this calculation aka summation determines whether or not the cell fires

Answer 410

- is a network of glands throughout the body that manufacture and secrete chemical messengers aka hormones - it works alongside the nervous system to control vital functions in the body - it instructs glands to release hormones directly into the bloodstream via blood vessels - these hormones are carried towards target organs in the body

Answer 411

- endocrine glands produce and secrete hormones into the bloodstream each gland in the endocrine system produces specific hormones - major glands in the endocrine system are: - pituitary - adrenal - reproductive organs ovaries + testes

Answer 412

- controlled by the hypothalamus which regulates many body functions - pituitary releases hormones which control many other endocrine glands - the pituitary glands is divided into the anterior (front) and posterior (rear) lobes which release different hormones - the anterior pituitary releases adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) during stress response and also produces luteinising hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) - pituitary hormones have different effects in males + females - in females LH + FSH stimulate the ovaries to produce oestrogen and progesterone - in males LH + FSH stimulate the testes to produce testosterone and sperm - the posterior pituitary releases oxytocin - in females oxytocin stimulates the contraction of the uterus in childbirth and is involved in mother infant bonding - in males oxytocin plays a role in sexual behaviour and in the reduction of anxiety

Answer 413

- adrenal glands sit on top of the kidneys - adrenal gland is divided into 2 parts: - the adrenal medulla - the adrenal cortex - the adrenal medulla releases adrenaline + noradrenaline which prepare the body for fight or flight - the adrenal cortex produces cortisol which regulates important cardiovascular functions in the body - cortisol production is increased in response to stress if cortisol level is low the individual has low blood pressure, poor immune function and an inability to deal with stress so the adrenal cortex releases cortisol which stimulates the release of glucose to provide the body with energy while suppressing the immune system

Answer 414

- helps the body respond to acute stress by increasing heart rate and blood flow to the muscles + brain and encouraging the breakdown of glycogen into glucose to provide energy - noradrenaline constricts the blood vessels causing blood pressure to increase

Answer 415

- hormones are chemicals that circulate in the bloodstream and are carried to target sites throughout the body - although hormones came into contact with most cells in the body a given hormone usually affects only a limited number of cells - aka target cells - there has to be particular receptors for particular hormones. Cells that don’t have such a receptor can’t be influenced directly by that hormone - when enough receptor sites are stimulated this results in a physiological reaction in the target cell - timing of hormone release is critical for normal functioning as are the levels of hormones released - too much or too little at the wrong time can result in dysfunction of bodily systems - eg too high a level of cortisol can lead to Cushing’s syndrome, characterised by high blood pressure and depression

Answer 416

- glands are self regulated by negative feedback (homeostasis) - eg a signal is sent from the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland in the form of a releasing hormone like CRH - this causes the pituitary to secrete a ‘stimulating’ hormone like ACTH - this hormone then signals the target gland eg adrenal glands to secrete its hormone from the adrenal cortex such as cortisol - as levels of this hormone rises in the bloodstream the hypothalamus shuts down secretion of the stimulating hormone ACTH - this slows down secretion of the target glands hormone resulting in the stable concentration of hormones circulating the bloodstream

Answer 417

- the main hormone released from the pineal gland is melatonin which is responsible for important biological rhythms including the sleep wake cycle - the thyroid gland releases thyroxine which is responsible for regulating metabolism. People who have a fast metabolism typically struggle to put on weight as metabolism is involved in the chemical process of converting food into energy

Answer 418

- males and females have different sex organs and in males the testes release androgens which include the main hormone testosterone - testosterone is responsible for the development of male sex characteristics during puberty while also promoting muscle growth - in females the ovaries release oestrogen which controls the regulation of the female reproductive system including the menstrual cycle and pregnancy

Answer 419

- a sequence of activity within the body that is triggered in response to stress enabling us to react quickly to life threatening situations it involves changes in the nervous system + secretion of hormones that are necessary to sustain arousal - the stress response is triggered by the amygdala

Answer 420

- the amygdala which is part of the limbic system responds to sensory input ( what we see, hear and smell) and connects sensory input with emotions associated with the fight or flight response eg fear and anger the amygdala sends a distress signal to the hypothalamus - the hypothalamus activated the sympathetic nervous system SNS - the SNS activates the adrenal medulla causing the adrenal medulla to release adrenaline - if the situation requires a short term response the sympathomedullary pathway (SAM pathway) is activated triggering the fight or flight response - when the threat has passed the parasympathetic nervous system restores heart rate and blood pressure to normal and allows digestion to restart - the body’s response stressors involves two major systems one for acute ie sudden stressors such as an attack & the second for chronic ie ongoing stressors such as a stressful job

Answer 421

- describes the sequence of bodily activity in response to stress that involves the hypothalamus pituitary and adrenal cortex H- hypothalamus P- pituitary A- adrenal - hypothalamus- releases corticotrophin releasing hormone - CRH into the bloodstream - pituitary gland- responds to CRH and releases adrenocorticotrophic hormone - ACTH which is transported to adrenal glands - adrenal gland - this stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol

Answer 422

- cortisol reduces sensitivity to pain and gives a quick burst of energy - special receptors in the hypothalamus and pituitary gland monitor circulating levels of cortisol releasing CRH and ACTH if levels rise above normal bringing cortisol levels to normal - the ACTH is detected in the bloodstream by the adrenal cortex which then releases further hormones into the bloodstream called corticosteroids - there are a number of corticosteroids with a number of ways they can influence the human body - when the hypothalamus detects the corticosteroids it will in effect switch off the pituitary adrenal system (it will stay off if the stressor has gone if not the hypothalamus will now stimulate the pituitary gland)

Answer 423

- the hypothalamus sets off the sympathomedullary pathway - which is done by activating the sympathetic division (SD) (part of the ANS) which then helps us fight or run away from the stressor - the SD stimulates a gland called the adrenal medulla to release hormones the major one being adrenaline aka the fight or flight hormone - the effects of this are instant and influence the individual in a range of ways - after these hormones have been released they take time to break down explaining why the individual will feel the effects some time after the stressor has gone

Answer 424

- refers to the belief that specific areas of the brain are associated with specific cognitive processes so specific functions eg language, memory, hearing etc have specific locations within the brain - these locations include: - motor area - somatosensory area - visual centres - language centres - brocas + wernickes area - auditory centres - if brain damage occurs to a specific area of the brain the associated function would also be damaged - the brain is divided into two symmetrical halves called left and right hemispheres - some functions are dominated by one hemisphere (lateralisation) - activity on the left side of the body is controlled by the right hemisphere and vice versa - the outer layer of both hemispheres is called the cerebral cortex - a 3 mm layer covering the inner parts of the brain - this separates us from other animal as the cortex is developed - it appears grey - grey matter

Answer 425

- responsible for the generation of voluntary movements - located along the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe - it sends nerve impulses to the muscles - the right hemisphere controls the left half of the body and vice versa - different parts of the motor cortex control different parts of the body - these are arranged logically the region that controls the foot is next to the region that controls the leg

Answer 426

- responsible for the generation of voluntary movements - located along the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe - it sends nerve impulses to the muscles - the right hemisphere controls the left half of the body and vice versa - different parts of the motor cortex control different parts of the body - these are arranged logically the region that controls the foot is next to the region that controls the leg

Answer 427

- detects sensory events from different regions of the body - located in the post central gyrus and is dedicated to the processing of sensory info related to touch - uses sensory info from the skin to produce sensations such as touch, pressure, pain, temperature which it then localises to specific body regions - both hemispheres have a somatosensory cortex - the information relating to each half of the body is processed in the opposite hemisphere of the brain

Answer 428

- located in the visual cortex in the occipital lobe - a nerve impulse from the retina travel to areas of the brain via the optic nerve to the thalamus which relays it to the visual cortex in the occipital lobes - visual cortex spans both hemispheres - input from the left of the visual field transfers to the visual cortex in the right hemisphere and vice versa - visual cortex contains different areas that process different types of visual info such as colour, shape and movement

Answer 429

- is concerned with hearing - in the temporal lobes on both sides of the brain where the auditory cortex is - it begins in the cochlea in the inner ear sound waves are converted to nerve impulses - these nerve impulses from the cochlea travel via the auditory nerve to the brain stem where basic decoding happens eg the duration and intensity of sound - then it continues via the thalamus to the auditory cortex where the sound has already been largely decoded by this point in the auditory cortex it’s recognised and may result in an appropriate response

Answer 430

- is concerned with hearing - in the temporal lobes on both sides of the brain where the auditory cortex is - it begins in the cochlea in the inner ear sound waves are converted to nerve impulses - these nerve impulses from the cochlea travel via the auditory nerve to the brain stem where basic decoding happens eg the duration and intensity of sound - then it continues via the thalamus to the auditory cortex where the sound has already been largely decoded by this point in the auditory cortex it’s recognised and may result in an appropriate response

Answer 431

- located in the posterior part of the left frontal lobe near to the motor region which controls the mouth and vocal cords - it’s involved in speech production - named after Paul broca- treated a patient called ‘tan’ who was unable to speak other than ‘tan’ but did understand language - studied 8 other patients who had similar language deficits along with lesions in their left frontal hemisphere - patients with damage to their right frontal hemisphere didn’t have the same problems - lead him to identify brocas area

Answer 432

- located in the posterior part of the left frontal lobe near to the motor region which controls the mouth and vocal cords - it’s involved in speech production - named after Paul broca- treated a patient called ‘tan’ who was unable to speak other than ‘tan’ but did understand language - studied 8 other patients who had similar language deficits along with lesions in their left frontal hemisphere - patients with damage to their right frontal hemisphere didn’t have the same problems - lead him to identify brocas area

Answer 433

- located in the posterior part of the left frontal lobe near to the motor region which controls the mouth and vocal cords - it’s involved in speech production - named after Paul broca- treated a patient called ‘tan’ who was unable to speak other than ‘tan’ but did understand language - studied 8 other patients who had similar language deficits along with lesions in their left frontal hemisphere - patients with damage to their right frontal hemisphere didn’t have the same problems - lead him to identify brocas area

Answer 434

- located in the posterior part of the left frontal lobe near to the motor region which controls the mouth and vocal cords - it’s involved in speech production - named after Paul broca- treated a patient called ‘tan’ who was unable to speak other than ‘tan’ but did understand language - studied 8 other patients who had similar language deficits along with lesions in their left frontal hemisphere - patients with damage to their right frontal hemisphere didn’t have the same problems - lead him to identify brocas area

Answer 435

- located in the posterior part of the left frontal lobe near to the motor region which controls the mouth and vocal cords - it’s involved in speech production - named after Paul broca- treated a patient called ‘tan’ who was unable to speak other than ‘tan’ but did understand language - studied 8 other patients who had similar language deficits along with lesions in their left frontal hemisphere - patients with damage to their right frontal hemisphere didn’t have the same problems - lead him to identify brocas area

Answer 436

- is near the auditory cortex - involved with understanding language - Carl wernicke discovered another area of the brain that was involved in understanding language in the back portion of left temporal lobe - patients with lesions on their wernickes area could speak but were unable to understand language and proposed that langage involved separate motor and sensory regions located in different cortical regions - input from the motor and sensory regions is transferred to wernickes area when recognised as langage and associated meaning - there’s a neural loop arcuate fascicules running between the Broca’s area and wernickes area - Broca’s area - responsible for the production of langage - wernickes area - responsible for the processing of spoken language

Answer 437

- is near the auditory cortex - involved with understanding language - Carl wernicke discovered another area of the brain that was involved in understanding language in the back portion of left temporal lobe - patients with lesions on their wernickes area could speak but were unable to understand language and proposed that langage involved separate motor and sensory regions located in different cortical regions - input from the motor and sensory regions is transferred to wernickes area when recognised as langage and associated meaning - there’s a neural loop arcuate fascicules running between the Broca’s area and wernickes area - Broca’s area - responsible for the production of langage - wernickes area - responsible for the processing of spoken language

Answer 438

- is near the auditory cortex - involved with understanding language - Carl wernicke discovered another area of the brain that was involved in understanding language in the back portion of left temporal lobe - patients with lesions on their wernickes area could speak but were unable to understand language and proposed that langage involved separate motor and sensory regions located in different cortical regions - input from the motor and sensory regions is transferred to wernickes area when recognised as langage and associated meaning - there’s a neural loop arcuate fascicules running between the Broca’s area and wernickes area - Broca’s area - responsible for the production of langage - wernickes area - responsible for the processing of spoken language

Answer 439

- is near the auditory cortex - involved with understanding language - Carl wernicke discovered another area of the brain that was involved in understanding language in the back portion of left temporal lobe - patients with lesions on their wernickes area could speak but were unable to understand language and proposed that langage involved separate motor and sensory regions located in different cortical regions - input from the motor and sensory regions is transferred to wernickes area when recognised as langage and associated meaning - there’s a neural loop arcuate fascicules running between the Broca’s area and wernickes area - Broca’s area - responsible for the production of langage - wernickes area - responsible for the processing of spoken language

Answer 440

- is near the auditory cortex - involved with understanding language - Carl wernicke discovered another area of the brain that was involved in understanding language in the back portion of left temporal lobe - patients with lesions on their wernickes area could speak but were unable to understand language and proposed that langage involved separate motor and sensory regions located in different cortical regions - input from the motor and sensory regions is transferred to wernickes area when recognised as langage and associated meaning - there’s a neural loop arcuate fascicules running between the Broca’s area and wernickes area - Broca’s area - responsible for the production of langage - wernickes area - responsible for the processing of spoken language

Answer 441

- is near the auditory cortex - involved with understanding language - Carl wernicke discovered another area of the brain that was involved in understanding language in the back portion of left temporal lobe - patients with lesions on their wernickes area could speak but were unable to understand language and proposed that langage involved separate motor and sensory regions located in different cortical regions - input from the motor and sensory regions is transferred to wernickes area when recognised as langage and associated meaning - there’s a neural loop arcuate fascicules running between the Broca’s area and wernickes area - Broca’s area - responsible for the production of langage - wernickes area - responsible for the processing of spoken language

Answer 442

- is near the auditory cortex - involved with understanding language - Carl wernicke discovered another area of the brain that was involved in understanding language in the back portion of left temporal lobe - patients with lesions on their wernickes area could speak but were unable to understand language and proposed that langage involved separate motor and sensory regions located in different cortical regions - input from the motor and sensory regions is transferred to wernickes area when recognised as langage and associated meaning - there’s a neural loop arcuate fascicules running between the Broca’s area and wernickes area - Broca’s area - responsible for the production of langage - wernickes area - responsible for the processing of spoken language

Answer 443

- lateralisation refers to the fact that two halves of the human brain aren’t entirely alike - each hemisphere has functional specialisations ie the left hemisphere is dominant for language and speech and the right hemisphere specialises in visuomotor tasks - broca reported that damage in a particular area of the left hemisphere led to language deficits yet damage to the equivalent area of the right hemisphere didn’t - the corpus callosum is a bundle of nerve fibres which joins the two hemispheres of the brain this means that we can talk about things perceived by the right hemisphere eg face recognition - a commissurotomy is the division of the two hemispheres by surgery which has occasionally been done to improve epilepsy - the left and right side communicates through the corpus callosum

Answer 444

- the chance to investigate the different abilities of the two hemispheres came about when in a treatment for severe epilepsy surgeons would cut through the bundle of nerve fibres that formed the corpus callosum - the aim of this procedure was to prevent the violent electrical activity that accompanies epileptic seizures crossing from one hemisphere to the other - these patients are referred to as ‘split brain’ patients who were researched to explore how each hemisphere responded separately to visual inputs

Answer 445

- carried out split brain experiments isolating info from reaching one hemisphere to assess the real effects of the surgery - they found that each hemisphere is still able to learn after the split brain operation but one hemisphere has no idea about what the other hemisphere has experienced or learned - one test involved the patient over each eye in turn - so if a picture is shown to the left visual field of a split brain patient this information is processed by the right hemisphere but it can’t respond verbally as it has no language centre - the left hemisphere doesn’t receive the info and therefore can’t talk about it despite having a language centre - cerebral lateralisation has been studied using split brain patients - these are patients who have undergone a corpus callosotomy which is where a large part of the corpus callosum has been cut restricting communication between the two hemispheres - the procedure was used in the 50s to treat severe forms of epilepsy and after surgery the people appeared quite ‘normal’ in that they managed to do all of the everyday things they did before the surgery

Answer 446

- plasticity refers to the brains ability to modify its own structure creating new neural pathways and pruning away weak connections as a result of experience - the brain isn’t a static organ and the functions and processes of the brain can change as a result of experience and injury - brain plasticity refers to the brains ability to change and adapt because of experience - eg playing video games results in new synaptic connections in brain areas involved in spatial recognition strategic planning, working memory & motor performance - there is a gradual decline in cognitive function with age but even 60year olds still have brain plasticity and can increase their grey matter in the visual cortex when taught a new skill such as juggling

Answer 447

- found that experienced meditators- Tibetan monks produced more gamma brainwaves than student volunteers indicating that meditation causes permanent change - research has consistently shown that the brain can adapt very quickly to new situations - different life experiences can affect different areas of the brain due to practice and training and also due to injury

Answer 448

- found that the posterior hippocampul volume of London taxi drivers brains was positively correlated with their time as a taxi driver and that there were significant differences between the taxi drivers brains and those of controls

Answer 449

- pruning - where connections are lost due to lack of use | - bridging- where new connections are created due to use and new stimulus

Answer 450

- refers to the recovery of abilities and mental processes that have been compromised as a result of trauma. When brain cells are damaged as they’re during a stroke other parts sometimes take over their functions - this can happen by neural unmasking in which dormant synapses (which haven’t received enough input to be active) can be reactivated when they receive more neural input than previously so they open connections to compensate for a nearby damaged area of the brain - this allows new connections in the brain to be activated thus recovering any damage occurring in specific regions - stem cells implanted into the brain may help to treat brain damage by directly replacing damaged cells - stem cells secrete growth factors that ‘rescue’ injured cells or they form a neural network linking uninjured areas with the damaged brain region

Answer 451

- studying the brain allows psychologists to gain important insights into the underlying foundations of our behaviour - a range of methods are available that involve scanning the living brain and looking at patterns of electrical activity

Answer 452

- if a researcher suspects that a patients behavioural changes were caused by brain damage they may look for abnormalities after the person dies - eg broca observed patients speech difficulties and found lesions in the brain post mortem - Henry molaison aka HM was a patient whose brain has been extensively investigated post mortem confirming damage to his hippocampus related to his inability to store new memories. Post mortem studies have also identified brain abnormalities in schizophrenia + depression

Answer 453

- if a researcher suspects that a patients behavioural changes were caused by brain damage they may look for abnormalities after the person dies - eg broca observed patients speech difficulties and found lesions in the brain post mortem - Henry molaison aka HM was a patient whose brain has been extensively investigated post mortem confirming damage to his hippocampus related to his inability to store new memories. Post mortem studies have also identified brain abnormalities in schizophrenia + depression

Answer 454

- if a researcher suspects that a patients behavioural changes were caused by brain damage they may look for abnormalities after the person dies - eg broca observed patients speech difficulties and found lesions in the brain post mortem - Henry molaison aka HM was a patient whose brain has been extensively investigated post mortem confirming damage to his hippocampus related to his inability to store new memories. Post mortem studies have also identified brain abnormalities in schizophrenia + depression

Answer 455

- if a researcher suspects that a patients behavioural changes were caused by brain damage they may look for abnormalities after the person dies - eg broca observed patients speech difficulties and found lesions in the brain post mortem - Henry molaison aka HM was a patient whose brain has been extensively investigated post mortem confirming damage to his hippocampus related to his inability to store new memories. Post mortem studies have also identified brain abnormalities in schizophrenia + depression

Answer 456

- measures changes in blood oxygenation and flow indicating increased neural activity in particular brain areas - FMRI works on the premise that neurons in the brain which are the most active during a take use the most energy - energy requires glucose + oxygen. Oxygen is carried in the bloodstream attached to haemoglobin (found in red blood cells) and is released for use by these active neurons at which point the haemoglobin becomes deoxygenated - deoxygenated haemoglobin has a different magnetic quality from oxygenated haemoglobin. An FMRI can detect these different magnetic qualities and can be used to create a dynamic (moving) 3D map of the brain, highlighting which areas are involved in different neural activities - FMRI images show activity approximately 1-4 secs after it occurs and are thought to be accurate within 1-2 mins

Answer 457

- measures changes in blood oxygenation and flow indicating increased neural activity in particular brain areas - FMRI works on the premise that neurons in the brain which are the most active during a take use the most energy - energy requires glucose + oxygen. Oxygen is carried in the bloodstream attached to haemoglobin (found in red blood cells) and is released for use by these active neurons at which point the haemoglobin becomes deoxygenated - deoxygenated haemoglobin has a different magnetic quality from oxygenated haemoglobin. An FMRI can detect these different magnetic qualities and can be used to create a dynamic (moving) 3D map of the brain, highlighting which areas are involved in different neural activities - FMRI images show activity approximately 1-4 secs after it occurs and are thought to be accurate within 1-2 mins

Answer 458

- measure electrical activity in the brain via electrodes placed on the scalp. EEGS show brainwaves over time - it works on the premise that info is processed in the brain as electrical activity in the form of action potentials or nerve impulses transmitted along neurons - small electrical charges detected by the electrodes are graphed over time indicating the level of activity in the brain

Answer 459

- alpha waves - beta waves - theta waves - delta waves

Answer 460

- amplitude - the intensity or size of the activity | - frequency- the speed or quantity of activity

Answer 461

- synchronised- where a recognised waveform eg alpha can be detected - desynchronised- where no pattern can be detected - fast desynchronised patterns are usually found when awake and synchronised patterns are typically found during sleep (alpha waves are associated with light sleep and theta/delta waves are associated with deep sleep

Answer 462

- responsible for developing our understanding of REM (dream) sleep which is associated with a fast desynchronised activity indicative of dreaming - EEG patterns in patients with epilepsy show spikes of electrical activity - alzheimers patients often show overall slowing of electrical activity

Answer 463

- ERP use similar equipment to EEG electrodes attached to the scalp - a stimulus is presented to a participant eg a picture/sound and the researcher looks for activity related to that stimulus - ERPs are difficult to separate from all of the background EEG data the stimulus is present many times (usually hundreds) and an average response is graphed - this procedure which is called ‘averaging’ reduces any extraneous neural activity which makes the specific response to the stimulus stand out - the time or interval between the presentation of the stimulus and the response is referred to as latency. ERPs have a very short latency and can be divided into 2 broad categories: - waves (responses) that occur within 100 milliseconds following the presentation of a stimulus are referred to as sensory ERPs as they reflect a sensory response to the stimulus - ERPs that occur after 100 milliseconds are referred to as cognitive ERPs as they demonstrate some information processing

Answer 464

- are biological rhythms lasting about 24hrs adapt the body to meet the demands of the day/night cycle

Answer 465

- endogenous pacemakers (internal)- the body’s biological clocks - exogenous zeitgebers (external)- changes in the environment

Answer 466

- circadian - infradian - ultradian

Answer 467

- the 24hr circadian rhythm is often known as the body clock which is reset by levels of light - the sleep wake cycle is an example of a circadian rhythm which dictates when humans and animals should be asleep and awake

Answer 468

- refers to alternating states of sleep and waking that are dependent on the 24hr circadian cycle controlled by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus

Answer 469

- a tiny pinhead sized area containing just 20,000 or so very small neurons but it has the responsibility for sending signals to several other parts of the brain to regulate the daily sleep wake cycle, body temperature, hormone production and other functions - the brains circadian clock regulates sleeping and feeding patterns, alertness, core body temperature, brain wave activity, hormone production, regulation of glucose and insulin levels, urine production, cell regeneration etc

Answer 470

- strongest sleep drive is usually from 2am-4am & from 1pm-3pm. This sleepiness is more intense if we’re sleep deprived - the homeostatic drive for sleep increases gradually throughout the day as we use up energy in activity - this free running internal circadian clock maintains a cycle of 24-25hrs even in the absence of external cues. It’s disrupted by major changes in sleep schedules like jet travel or shift work

Answer 471

- environmental light levels cause neural signals to be sent to the SCN so that the circadian rhythm can be synchronised with daylight hours - this is photoentrainment

Answer 472

- environmental light levels cause neural signals to be sent to the SCN so that the circadian rhythm can be synchronised with daylight hours - this is photoentrainment

Answer 473

- core body temperature is lowest about 36’C around 4:30am and highest about 38’C around 6pm - it also dips between 2pm-4pm

Answer 474