Everything Flashcards
(154 cards)
1
Q
Sarcolemma
A
Muscle cell membrane
2
Q
Skeletal muscle fibres
A
Muscles can’t divide - they grow
Sarcoplasm (cytoplasm) filled with myofibrils and many mitochondria
3
Q
Structure, function and location of skeletal muscle tissue
A
Long, cylinder, striated Multi nucleated Voluntary Moves skeleton Attached to bones and sometimes skin (facial muscles)
4
Q
Structure, function and location of cardiac muscle tissue
A
Short, striated, branching 1 or 2 centrally locates nuclei Involuntary Pumps blood through heart Heart wall (myocardium)
5
Q
Structure, function and location of smooth muscle tissue
A
Short, nonstriated cells, fusiform One nucleus Involuntary Moves materials through internal organs In walls of hollow internal organs (intestines, stomach)
6
Q
Motor unit
A
One lower motor neuron and all skeletal muscle fibres it innervates muscle fibres in one motor unit all contract together.
Muscle force depends on number of activated motor units and how often they’re activated
One motor neuron and all the muscle fibres it is connected to
7
Q
Oxygen debt
A
Breathing heavily after exercise
Replace depleted myoglobin oxygen reserves. Synthesis of ATP. Pyruvic avid can be converted back to glucose (liver)
8
Q
Nervous tissue functions
A
- Sensing changes with internal or external receptors
- Interpreting and remembering those changes
- Reacting to those changes by controlling effectors (muscles and glands)
9
Q
Central Nervous System
A
Brain
Spinal cord
Integration and command centre
Myelination by oligodendrocytes
10
Q
Peripheral nervous system
A
Cranial
Spinal nerves
Carry messages to and from CNS
Myelination by neurolemmocytes
11
Q
Somatic Sensory
A
Input
Afferent
Conscious
Eg. eyes ears skin
12
Q
Visceral Sensory
A
Input
Afferent
Not conscious
Receptors of blood vessels and internal organs
13
Q
Somatic Motor
A
Output
Efferent
Voluntary
From CNS to skeletal muscles
14
Q
Autonomic Motor
A
Output
Involuntary
From CNS to cardiac muscles, smooth muscles and glands
15
Q
Sympathetic Division
A
Part of Autonomic NS
Mobilises body systems during activity
Via neurotransmitter noradrenaline
16
Q
Parasympathetic Division
A
Part of Autonomic NS
Conserves energy
Promotes house-keeping functions during rest
Via neurotransmitter acetylcholine
17
Q
Neurons
A
Principal excitable cells that generate and transmit electrical signals (impulses)
18
Q
Neuroglia
A
Glia cells
Supporting cells
19
Q
Cells in CNS
A
Astrocytes
Microglia
Ependymal cells
Oligodendrocytes
20
Q
Cells in PNS
A
Satellite cells Schwann cells (neurolemmocyte)
21
Q
Astrocyte
A
Helps form BBB
Regulates interstitial fluid composition
Provides structural support and organisation to CNS
22
Q
Ependymal Cell
A
Lines ventricals of brain and central canal of spinal cord
Assists in production and circulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Ciliates to help move fluid around
23
Q
Microglial Cell
A
Phagocytic cells that move through the CNS
Protects the CNS by engulfing infectious agents and potential harmful substances
24
Q
Oligodendrocyte
A
Myelinated and insulates CNS axons
Allows faster action potential propagation along axons in CNS
25
White matter
Bundles of mule aged axons
| Fast conduction of nerve impulse ideal for communication
26
Grey matter
Neuron bodies, dendrites, unmylenated axons and neuroglia
27
Voltage gated ion channels
Open in response to change in membrane potential
28
Ligand gaged ion channels
Open in response to chemical stimuli working on their receptors found on the channels
29
Modality gaged ion channels
Open as a result of physical stimulation such as mechanical (touch, pressure) or temperature
30
Resting membrane potential
Essential process that contributes to development of RMP is activity of Na/K pumps
The pump establishes concentration gradient for Na/K across the cell membrane (3 Na+ OUT and 2 K+ IN. Protein for K is always slightly open and leaks)
Can be changed by graded potential or action potential
-70mV
31
Graded potentials
Arise due to movement of ions through modality graded and ligand gaged ion channels
-70 to -55 mV
32
-70 mV
Resting membrane potential
33
-70 to -55 mV
Graded potential
| -55mV opens volatile gated sodium channels
34
-55 to 30 mV
Depolarisation
| Sodium coming into the cell
35
30 to -90 mV
Repolarisation
| Potassium going out of the cell
36
-90 mV
Hyperpolarisation
37
30mV
Closed sodium channels and opens potassium channels
38
Frontal cerebrum
```
Voluntary motor
Motivation
Planning
Memory and mood
Emotion
Social judgement
```
39
Parietal cerebrum
Receives and integrates sensory info (taste and some visual)
40
Temporal cerebrum
Areas of hearing, smell, learning, memory and emotional behaviour
41
Occipital cerebrum
Visual centre
42
Insula cerebrum
Understanding spoken language
Taste
Integrating sensory from viscera
43
Primary somatosensory area
Map
| From instra-abdominal to tongue to face to thumb to arm to neck to hip to leg to dick
44
Wernickes area
Special association area important in understanding language (spoken and written)
In middle of brain
45
Broca’s area
Motor speech, directs muscles involved in speech production
46
Subcortical white matter association fibres
Connect different parts of the same hemisphere (horizontal)
47
Subcortical white matter projection fibres
Tie cortex to other brain areas (vertical)
48
3 parts of diencephalon
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Epithalamus
49
Thalamus
Main relay station for conscious sensory information on the way to cortex
Involved in memory and emotional functions
Helps control movement
50
Hypothalamus
Major regulator of homeostasis (ANS control centre)
Initiated physical responses to emotions; pleasure, fear, rage etc
Ant. And post. Pituitary hormone release (regulates pituitary gland activity)
51
Epithalamus
Pineal gland, releases melatonin, helps with sleep-wake cycle
Descartes - houses the soul
52
3 parts of Brainstem
Midbrain
Pons
Medulla Oblongata
53
Midbrain
Helps control subconscious/ automatic muscle activity
Coordinates automatic eye and head movements
Visual and auditory reflex centres
54
Pons
Functional link between cerebrum and cerebellum; contains part of the respiratory centre
55
Medulla oblongata
Continuation of spinal cord
Contains cardiovascular and respiratory centres also reflex centres for coughing sneezing and swallowing
Controls heart rate and blood pressure
56
Cerebellum
Receives unconscious proprioception information from the musculoskeletal system
57
3 Meninges
```
From superior to inferior:
Dura Mater (tough)
Arachnoid Mater (spider web)
Pia Mater (delicate)
```
58
Meninges
Cover and protect the CNS
Protect blood vessels
Surround and house cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Form partitions in the skull
59
3 layers of Blood Brain Barrier
1. Continuous endothelium of capillary wall
2. Thick basal lamina surrounding external face of capillary
3. ‘Feet’ of astrocytes clinging to capillaries
60
Blood brain barrier
Selective barrier
Not effective against membrane soluble substances (alcohol, nicotine)
Not present in some places - vomiting centre of brain (medulla and hypothalamus)
61
Cerebrospinal Fluid
Mechanical protection - floats brain and softens impacts with bone walls
Chemical homeostasis - helps maintain optimal ionic concentrations needed for action potentials
Circulation - helps more nutrients and wage products to and from blood stream
62
Efferent
Motor
63
Afferent
Sensory
64
Sensory Pathway
3 neuron system
Fine touch - long, short, short (cross at medulla)
Pain and temp - short, long, short (cross at beginning)
Destination is primary sensory area of cerebral cortex
65
Motor Pathway
2 neuron system
| Short, long (long one switches sides at medulla)
66
Cervical Plexus
C1 - C4
Innervates skin and muscles of the neck, ear, back of head, shoulders and diaphragm
Controls breathing
67
Brachial Plexus
C5 - T1
Gives rude to radial, axillary, ulnar, median and musculocatarlous nerves
These nerves supply motor and sensory innervations to the entire upper limb
68
Lumbar Plexus
L1 - L4
Gives rise to nerves that innovate skin and muscles of the lower abdominal wall, external genitals and thigh
Femoral nerve
69
Sacral Plexus
L4 - S4
Gives rise to nerves that innervates the buttocks, posterior thigh and most of leg and foot
Sciatic nerve
70
Dermatomes
Area of skin innervates by a single spinal nerve
71
Cranial Nerves (12)
```
Olfactory
Optic
Occulomotor
Trochlear
Trigeminal
Abduncens
Facial
Vestibulocochlear
Glossopharyngeal
Vagus
Accessory
Hypoglassal
```
72
Olfactory
S
Smell
Smell stuff - coffee
73
Optic
S
Vision
Eye chart
74
Occulomotor
M and P
Eye movement and pupil constriction
Pupil reflex with light, follow object
75
Trochlear
M
Eye movement
Follow object
76
Trigeminal
S and M
General face sensation, chewing muscles
Touch face w feather, close, open mouth against resistance
77
Abduncens
M
Lateral eye movement
Follow object (to side)
78
Facial
S, M and P
Taste anterior 2/3 tongue, facial expression, lacrimal and salivary glands
Taste test, facial expressions, make them cry
79
Vestibulocochlear
S
Hearing and balance
Hearing test
80
Glossopharyngeal
S, M and P
Taste posterior 1/3 tongue, 1 pharyngeal muscle for swallowing, partied salivary gland
Taste test, uvula position
81
Vagus
S, M and P
Heart lungs and abdominal sensory, most pharyngeal muscles and all laryngeal muscles, smooth muscle in heart lungs etc
Swallowing
82
Accessory
M
Trapezius and sternocleidomastoid
Neck and shoulder movement
83
Hypoglassal
M
Tongue muscles
Stick out tongue
84
Sympathetic Nervous System
Fight or Flight
Maintain optimal blood supply to organs
Short, long
Norepinephrine to adrenergic receptor
85
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Rest and Digest
Energy acquisition and storage
Long, short
Acetylocholine to muscarinic receptor
86
Vasoconstriction
Increasing sympathetic activity
87
Vasodilation
Decreasing sympathetic activity
88
Exocrine Glands
Secrete products into ducts which empty into body cavities of internal organs or body surface
Eg. sweat glands, skin oil glands, mucous glands and digestive glands
89
Endocrine glands
Secrets chemical messengers (hormones) into bloodstream
| Eg. Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid and adrenal glands
90
Water-soluble hormones - transported in blood, dissolved in water (3)
AMINE hormones are derived from amino acids (adrenaline)
PEPTIDE hormones composed of relatively small number of amino acids (insulin -51)
PROTEIN hormones have a larger number of amino acids (growth hormone -191)
91
Lipid-soluble hormones - transported in blood temporarily bound to albumin (2)
STERIOD hormones are derived from cholesterol (sex hormones)
| THYROID hormones are derived from fusion of 2 molecules of amino acid thyroxine + attaches iodine (T3 and T4)
92
Neural Stimuli
Control by Nervous System
Sympathetic Division >> adrenal medulla releases epinephrine or norepinephrine
Nerve signal is fastest
93
Hormonal stimuli
Presence of other hormones (releasing factors)
Hormone to hormone
Anterior pituitary releases TSH >> TSH stimulates thyroid gland to release TH
94
Humoral stimuli
Directly changing blood levels of ion/nutrients
| Blood glucose level increase >> pancreas releases insulin
95
Hydrophobic hormones
Penetrate plasma membrane and enter nucleus
| Take several hours to days to show effect
96
Hydrophilic hormones
Cannot penetrate into target cell
Stimulate cells indirectly via membrane receptors and second messenger systems
Produce faster effects than hydrophobic hormones
97
Posterior Pituitary (2)
Hormones produced in cell body of neurons in hypothalamus
Hormones stored and released from axon terminals
Not a true endocrine gland because it only receives hormones
1. Oxytocin
2. Antidinretic hormone (ADH)
98
Anterior Pituitary (5)
Directly produces and stores hormones
1. Human growth hormone (hGH)
2. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
3. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing hormone (LH)
4. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
5. Prolactin (PRL)
99
Human growth hormone (hGH)
Ant. Pituitary Gland
Stimulates general body growth and development
Regulates aspects of metabolism
100
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) thyrotopin
Ant. Pituitary Gland
| Stimulates synthesis/release of thyroid gland hormones (T3 and T4)
101
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)
Ant. Pituitary Gland
Stimulates secretion of sex hormones
Control menstrual cycle, ovulation and sperm production
Not found in the blood before puberty
102
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Ant. Pituitary Gland
| Stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids
103
Prolactin (PRL)
Ant. Pituitary Gland
| Milk production in females
104
Oxytocin
Post. Pituitary gland
Enhances contraction of uterus during delivery
Plays role in sexual arousal and orgasm
105
Antidinretic hormone (ADH)
Post. Pituitary gland
Releases in response to increased osmotic pressure
Stimulates kidneys to retain more water from urine
106
T4
Thyroxine
2 tyrosine molecules + 4 iodine atoms
95% thyroid gland output
107
T3
Triiodothyronine
2 tyrosine molecules + 3 iodine atoms
5% thyroid gland output
108
Calcitonin
Peptide hormone that stimulates calcium uptake in bone matrix and thus reduces calcium in blood
109
Parathyroid hormone
Raises blood calcium level
Increases activity of osteoclasts (bone crushing)
Increase reabsorbtion if calcium from iron by kidney - less calcium lost in urine
Promotes calcitroil which increases absorbtion of calcium in kidneys
Opposite function to calcitonin
110
Mineralocorticoid
Deal with electrolytes (mainly Na and K) and water
Aldosterone
Increases reabsorbtion of Na in urine
111
Glucocorticoid
```
Cortisol
Increase protein breakdown
Conversion of amino acids to glucose
Increase blood pressure
Are produced in various states of stress
```
112
Alpha cells
Stimulus: decrease in blood glucose levels
Alpha cells detect this so they release glucagon
29 amino acid peptide
113
Beta Cells
Stimulus: increase in blood glucose levels
Beta cells detect this and release insulin
51 amino acid peptide
114
Thick filament
```
Composed or mainly myosin molecules
Myosin head (golf head) extend toward thin filaments
```
115
Thin filament
Made it protein molecules actin, groping and tropomyosin
116
Sacromere
Thick and thin filaments arranges in compartments
In the overlap region 6 thin filaments surround each thick filament
The smallest contractile unit of a muscle cell *
117
Contraction of skeletal muscle
1. Nerve impulse triggers release of ACh into synaptic cleft
2. ACh diffuses to ACh receptors on the sarcolemma and binds then
3. Nicotinic ACh receptors are round in ligand-gated Na+ channels which open and Na+ rushes into the cell
4. This produces graded excitatory postsynaptic potential that changes RMP to threshold
5. At threshold point voltage-gated Na+ channels open, which is the beginning of action potential
6. Action potential starts over whole sarcolemma
118
3 was to produce ATP
1. From creative phosphate
2. By anaerobic cellular respiration
3. By aerobic cellular respiration
119
Creatine phosphate
Excess ATP within resting muscle used to form creatine
| 3-6 times more plentiful than ATP
120
Anaerobic Cellular Respiration
ATP produced from glucose breakdown into pyruvic acid during glycolysis
121
Aerobic Cellular Respiration
Provides ATP for activities over 30 seconds
| If sufficient O2 is available, pyruvic acid enters the mitochondria to generate ATP, water and CO2
122
Isometric contraction
Muscle tension is less than the resistance. Although tension is generated, the muscle does not shorten, no movement occurs
123
Isotonic contraction
Muscle tension is greater than the resistance. The muscle shortens (concentric) or lengthens (eccentric) and movement occurs
124
Fibrin
Essential part of the true clotting cascade
125
Each haemoglobin molecule contain the element ....
Iron
126
Cerebral cortex
Grey matter
Contains 3 kinds of functional areas
Each hemisphere is chiefly concerned with sensory and motor functions of the contralateral side of the body
127
Nociceptors
Detect potentially damaging stimuli that result in pain
128
Insulin
Levels rise after a meal containing proteins and carbohydrates
129
Spleen
Where expired erythrocytes are broken up
130
Basal nuclei
Abnormalities cause Parkinson’s and Huntington’s disease
131
Multimodal association
Responsible for integrating different types of sensory information
132
Vestibulocochlear
Balance
133
Tropins
Regulate the secretory action or other endocrine glands
134
Synergist
Assists the agonist by adding force to a movement
135
Tendon
Closely packed bundle of dense regular connective tissue connected to the bone
136
Aponeurosis
A flat tendon
137
Origin
Immovable/fixed point of muscle attachment
138
Insertion
Muscle Attachment in moveable bone
139
Agonist
Prime mover
140
Antagonist
Resists or reverses a particular movement
141
Fixator
Muscle that immobilises a bone
142
Muscles of the axial skeleton
Muscles of the face, tongue, throat, larynx, neck, back, thorax, and abdomen
143
Muscles of the appendicular skeleton
Muscles of the pectoral and pelvic girdles and limbs
144
Smooth muscle contraction
1. Ca released from SR/ interstitial fluid
2. Ca binds to enzyme (calmodulin)
3. Enzyme (calmodulin) activates enzyme (myosin light chain kinase)
4. Activated enzyme lyses ATP - giving ADP+P
5. P group causes myosin head to change shape - powering thin filament sliding against thick (and so shortening)
6. Very energy efficient
145
Functions of Blood
1. Transportation
2. Regulation
3. Protection from disease
146
Haematocrit
Percentage of total blood volume occupied by red blood cells
147
Nociceptors
Detect potentially damaging stimuli that result in pain
148
Buffer Equation
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-
Carbon dioxide + water - carbonic acid - hydrogen ion + biocarbonate ion
Holding breath increases CO2 levels which causes acidosis
149
Mitosis
Somatic cell division
| One parent cell forms 2 identical daughter cells with the same number of chromosomes
150
Meiosis
Reproductive Cell Division
Number of chromosomes reduced to half
Egg and sperm cell production; occurs in testes and ovaries
151
Skeletal Muscle contraction
Ca2+ binds to calcium binding site on tropin, tropomyosin which is protecting the myosin binding site, moves aside, allowing myosin heads to bind to actin and contract
152
3 stages of haemostasis
1. Vasoconstriction/spasm - blood vessels get smaller to reduce blood loss
2. Platelet plug formation - aggregation - platelets are attached to the site and bind with exposed collagen
3. Coagulation- blood coagulates, with fibrogen converting into fibrin and forming a clot mashwork
153
Granular leukocytes
Basophil
Eosinophils
Neutrophils
154
Agranular leukocytes
Lymphocytes
| Monocytes
