Exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
What is anatomy?
A
The study of morphology, structure
2
Q
What is macroscopic (gross) anatomy?
A
Visual structures
3
Q
What are the two types of microscopic anatomy?
A
Cytology and Histology
4
Q
What is cytology?
A
The difference in the structure of cells
5
Q
What is histology?
A
When you group cells together and make up a tissue
6
Q
What is physiology?
A
The study of function
7
Q
What is cellular physiology?
A
How different cells function: energy, production, growth
8
Q
What is systems physiology?
A
How various systems work together + independently
9
Q
What is pathophysiology?
A
When physiology goes wrong
10
Q
What elements make up 96% of animals?
A
O, C, H, N
11
Q
What are the 4 chemical/molecular units of life?
A
Carbohydrates
Protein
Fat
Nucleic acids
12
Q
3 main cellular level of organization point
A
- Basic unit of structure/function associated with life
- Maintain interior that is different than exterior
- Specialized in mammals
13
Q
What are the 4 main types of tissue?
A
Muscle
Nervous
Epithelial
Connective Tissue
14
Q
What is an organ and what is its purpose?
A
- Functional unit made up of MULTIPLE tissue types
- Perform specific function/set of functions
15
Q
What is a system in regards to physiology?
A
Collection of related organs that perform a specific task
16
Q
What are the 3 things homeostasis is/does?
A
- Dynamic “steady-state” of internal enviroment
- Stable “maintenance of optimal conditions” out cells need to live
- “Normal set-point” for physiological parameters
17
Q
What must homeostatic control systems do?
A
- Detect deviations from normal
- Integrate this info with needs of the body
- Make appropriate adjustments to restore “normal set-point”
18
Q
What is negative feedback?
A
Response that decreases stimulus
19
Q
What is positive feedback?
A
Response that increases original stimulus
20
Q
Feedforward
A
Response in anticipation of events
21
Q
What are the macromolecules of life?
A
Proteins
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Nucleic acids
22
Q
What are proteins built from and how many types of building blocks are there?
A
Amino Acids (20)
23
Q
What are carbohydrates?
A
Sugars or starches
24
Q
What are lipids?
A
Fats
25
What are nucleic acids made from?
DNA and RNA
26
What is the cell membrane made from?
Phospholipid bilayer and embedded proteins/carbs
27
What is cytoplasm made up of?
Cytosol and fluid
28
What are organelles?
Structures with specific functions
29
What is the nucleus?
Membrane-bound "control center"
30
What does the nucleus house?
- Genetic material (code)
- Nucleotide base pairs
- A & T, G & C
31
What is DNA wound into?
Chromatin
32
Where is the site of transcription?
In the nucleus
33
What makes the rough ER rough?
Studded with ribosomes
34
What happens in the rough ER?
site of protein synthesis (translation)
35
What does the smooth ER do?
Modifies lipids, carbs, ions
Packages ER products
36
What is a ribosome?
Protein synthesizer
37
Where are ribosomes found?
ER-bound or free-floating
38
How many subunits are there in a ribosome?
2
39
What do the Golgi apparatus and vesicles do?
Takes up proteins from the ER
40
What happens in the Golgi?
- Post-translational modification of proteins
- Packages products into vesicles
- -> storage , intracellular support , secretion
41
What is the mitochondria?
The power plant - 90% of the cell's energy
42
How many membranes do the mitochondria
2
43
What does the mitochondria's outer membrane do?
- Substrate transport
| - Some enzymatic activity
44
What does the mitochondria's inner membrane do?
- Highly folded
| - Electron transport chain (ETC)
45
Where is the mitochondria's matrix?
Inside inner membrane
46
What happens in the mitochondria's matrix?
Krebs cycle
47
What is cytoplasm?
intricate structural framework
48
What is the cytoskeleton made up of?
Microfilaments (actin)
Microtubules (tubulin)
Intermediate filaments
49
What do cells require?
Nutrients and oxygen
50
What to cells metabolize?
Energy (ATP)
51
What is a cell's major function?
Synthesize proteins
- growth
- cell structure/function
52
What does a cell respond to?
environmental changes
53
What does a cell regulate?
material exchange with environment & within the cell
54
What are the 5 things a cell does in its life cycle?
1. It acquired things (uptake)
2. It builds things (synthesis)
3. It burns things (metabolism)
4. It reproduces (proliferation)
5. It dies
55
How do things get into the cell? What are the 3 types of transportation?
1. Simple diffusion
2. Facilitated diffusion
3. Active transport
56
What is simple diffusion?
Unimpeded movement down the compound's concentration gradient
57
What is osmosis?
simple diffusion of water
58
What is facilitated diffusion?
Permitted movement down the concentration gradient
59
What is active transport? What does it require?
Movement by the cell's action. Requires energy
60
What is active transport independent of?
the concentration gradient
61
How does a cell make things?
By synthesizing proteins
62
What are the 3 steps of synthesizing proteins?
1. Transcription
2. Translation
3. Post-translational modification
63
What happens during transcription?
Copies of DNA segments are made (mRNA)
64
What happens during translation?
mRNA sequence is the "recipe" for a specific protein
65
What happens during the post-translational modification?
Putting final touches on the protein
66
What can fats, carbs (& existing proteins) be modified by?
enzymes the cell produces
67
What is the first step in protein production?
Transcription
68
What are the basics of transcription?
- RNA is copies from DNA segments
Sense-making segments
In reverse
"U" substituted for "T"
69
What happens in transcription initiation?
- transcription factor(s) unwinds DNA
| - RNA polymerase unzips short segments of DNA
70
What happens during transcription elongation?
- RNA polymerase reads nucleotide sequence
| - Recruits & links complimentary nucleotides
71
What happens during transcription termination?
- RNA polymerase encounters a transcription terminator and detaches
- RNA strand is released, further processed, & sent to ER
72
What happens in translation initiation?
- ribosome picks up mRNA
- reads start codon (AUG)
- Attaches tRNA w/ complimentary anticodon
73
What happens during translation elongation?
- ribosome reads mRNA's codon sequence
- recruits complimentary tRNA for each
- attaches tRNA's AA to previous AA
- -> detaches AA from tRNA
- -> kicks stripped tRNA out
- Next codon
74
What happens during translation termination?
- ribosome reaches a stop codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA)
- -> no tRNA's for these!
- attaches H20 instead
- causes the ribosome to release the peptide chain
- -> mRNA also released
75
Where does mRNA go after translation?
next ribosome
76
Where does the ribosome go after translation?
Next mRNA
77
Where does post-translational modification occur?
In the golgi
78
What are some types of post-translational modifcation?
- folding
- addition of chemistry group
- combining
- cleaving
- swapping out AA's
79
What after modification?
sorted, packaged in vesicles, and shipped.
80
How does a cell modify things?
Enzymes
81
Oxidoreductase
Redox (electron or H exchange)
82
Transferase
exchanges a group
83
lyase
removes group, leaves double bond
84
Isomerase
converts between isomers (changes shape)
85
Ligase
Links 2 things
86
How does a cell make energy?
- Ingested
- Broken down in stomach/ intestine
- Transported in bloodstream
- Taken up by cell
87
3 main macromolecules for energy/metabolism
1. carbohydrates --> primarily glucose
2. fatty acid --> 2nd most preferred
3. Proteins/ amino acids --> energy mode
88
What are the 4 cell reproduction steps?
G1
S
G2
M (mitosis)
89
What happens in G1 phase?
1st growth phase
90
What happens in S phase?
DNA synthesis
91
What happens in G2 phase?
2nd growth phase
92
What happens during M phase?
Cell divides into 2 cells
93
What are the steps of mitosis?
```
Prophase
Prometaphase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
```
94
Gap junctions
exchange ions and other small particles
95
Surface antigens
```
Require contact (mobile cells)
Surface receptors on "signalee" cell
```
96
What are the two types of chemical messengers?
Paramones and Hormones
97
What are paramones?
- local chemical messengers (interstitial space)
| - histamines, cytokines, growth factors
98
What are hormones?
- systemic chemical messengers (bloodstream)
- multiple target tissues
- Insulin, FSH, GH
99
What are ligand-binding receptors?
1st / primary messenger
100
What does a ligand-binding rececptor cause?
- open/close channel
| - affect 2nd messenger
101
What does simple diffusion move?
O2, CO2 (nonpolar molecules)
102
What does facilitated diffusion move?
H2O, ions (polar)
103
What does active transport need?
Na/K pump and required energy
104
Vesicular transport
material encapsulated in membrane
105
Endocytosis
phagocytosis - destroying it
| pinocytosis - intaking water
106
Exocytosis
Vescivle binds membrane, releasing contents
107
What causes a membrane potential?
- difference in electrical voltage in ECF and ICF
| - separation of charges across membrane (Na+, K+, Cl-)
108
What is the polarity of a cell membrane
Negative inside
| Positive outside
109
What is resting potential established by?
Sodium-potassium pump
110
What does the Sodium-potassium pump do?
pumps 3 Na+ out and 2 K+ in
111
What are the causes of the resting potential
1. electrochemical gradient
- + outside; - inside
2. Na+ concentration gradient
3. K+ concentration gradient
112
Steps of action potential?
1. Stimulus
2. Depolarization
3. Repolarization
4. Refractory period
113
Stimulus
potential rises above threshhold (from -70 to -55 mV)
114
Depolarization
- V-gated Na channels open, Na rushes in down concentration gradient
- charges are reversed (+30 mv)
- Adjacent Na channels are opened
115
Repolarization
- Na channels lock
- V-gated K channel opens, K rushes out
- charges are reversed once again
116
Refractory period
- K channels close and lock
- no more action potential
- Na/K ATPase restores ion concentration/ resting potential
117
Lipid monomer, polymer, and example
hydrocarbon
fatty acid
--> sterioid hormones, adipose tissue, omega-3's
118
Carbohydrate monomer, polymer, example
monosaccaride, polysacharide
| --> starches
119
Protein monomer, polymer, example
amino acid, polypeptide/ peptide chains
| --> enzyme, protein hormone
120
Nucleic acids monomer, polymer, example
Nucleotides (A,T,C,G), DNA and RNA
| --> DNA/RNA
