Exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
anthropology
A
- the study of the human condition
- anthropo = humanity
- ology = study
2
Q
what are the 4 fields of anthropology?
A
biological, cultural, archaeology, linguistics
3
Q
biological anthropology
A
- humans as biological species
- human and nonhuman (NHP) anatomy, genetics, biology, paleopathology, paleontology
- forensics, primate behavior and ecology, evolutionary biology
- evolutionary theory is an underlying theme
- integrated and interdisciplinary
4
Q
cultural anthropology
A
human culture
5
Q
archaeology
A
material culture of humans
6
Q
linguistics
A
human language
7
Q
what is the scientific method?
A
- ask a question
- do background research
- construct a hypothesis
- test your hypothesis by doing an experiment
- analyze your data and draw a conclusion
- communicate your results
8
Q
constructing a hypothesis
A
- an educated guess
- if ___, then ___ will happen
- must be testable and falsifiable
9
Q
what is the hierarchy of scientific knowledge?
A
- paradigm
- theory
- hypothesis
- fact
10
Q
paradigm
A
universally recognized framework, worldview
- paradigm shifts can shift, science by nature is falsifiable because new facts accumulate
11
Q
theory
A
an explanation of facts acquired through the scientific method and repeatedly tested and confirmed
12
Q
hypothesis
A
a proposed explanation for an observation that can be tested, an educated guess
13
Q
fact
A
an objective and verifiable (and falsifiable) observation
14
Q
aristotle
A
- 384-322 BCE in greece
- extensive knowledge of the existing biosphere (anatomy/physiology, biogeography, domestication, astronomy)
15
Q
what was the paradigm for almost 2000 years?
A
- an anthropocentric universe
- unexplained phenomenon in retrograde motion of planets
16
Q
copernicus
A
1473-1543 AD
- on the revolution of the celestial spheres
- earth is in orbit around the sun - heliocentric model
- paradigm shift did not happen right away
17
Q
linnaeus
A
- 1707 - 1778, sweden
- systema naturae
- detailed taxonomy
- binomial nomenclature
- assumed fixity of species
18
Q
fixity of species
A
- god made the world in 7 days, about 6000 years ago and put animals in their current state onto it
- no room for evolution
- what about fossils?
19
Q
leclerc
A
- 1707-1788 , france
- natural history
- questioned the fixity of species
- recognized interaction of environment and species - noted that species seemed well adapted to their environments but did not provide a mechanism
20
Q
cuvier
A
- 1769-1832. france
- proposed functionalism and catastrophism
21
Q
functionalism
A
traits are perfect for their function
22
Q
catastrophism
A
fossils explained by global catastrophe and more recent creation events
23
Q
lamarck
A
- 1744-1829
- zological philosophy
- natural processes produce radical changes in living organisms
- inheritance of acquired characteristics
24
Q
inheritance of acquired characteristics
A
- new generation enters the environment
- changes in environment
- changes in animals activity/behavior
- increase/decrease in use f certain body parts
- life fluids and forces concentrated in used body parts, leave unused parts
- body part responds to the changes in life fluids, reshaping itself
- these alterations are passed down to offspring
25
saint-hilaire
- 1772-1844, france
- philosophie anatomique
- homology
26
homology
anatomical parts change shape and size but maintain consistent associations throughout all animals
27
lyell
- 1797-1875
- principles of geology
- uniformitarianism
- deep time (stratification)
28
uniformitarianism
geological processes are constant through time and space
29
deep time
geology (stratigraphy) indicates that the earth has existed for a long time
30
evolutionary theory underlies what aspects of biological anthropology?
- comparative anatomy
- human biology
- primatology
- any other questions that ask why different groups have different characteristics
31
what are the factors that set the stage for evolution?
- traditional approach to understanding the natural world was based on classification
- geologists such as lyell had demonstrated deep time in the history of the earth and noted existence of fossil organisms
- fixity of species called into question
- selective breeding of animals and plants was well-established
32
selective breeding
animals (and plants) with desirable traits are bred with similar animals (speed, conformation, markings)
33
artificial selection
differential fitness within a population, based on heritable traits people like
34
an essay on the principle of population
- malthus
- resources are limited
- when resources are increased, populations will rapidly grow to absorb these
- eventually the resources will run out
- when resources are limited, only some will survive
- this theory inspired lamarck, darwin, and wallace
35
Lamarck
- zoological philosophy
- lamarckian evolution
- natural processes produce radical changes in living organisms
- vitalism
- inheritance of acquired characteristics
36
what are the issues proposed in the inheritance of acquired characteristics?
- many examples of acquired characteristics that are not inherited such as things you learn, things that happen to you, and results of activities
37
who produced the theory of evolution by natural selection?
- charles darwin
- alfred russel wallace
38
charles darwin
- medical school dropout
- cambridge university divinity degree
- naturalists abroad the HMS Beagle which took him to the galapagos islands and collected finches
39
alfred russell wallace
- field naturalist, world traveler, super unlucky
- observations and malthusian principles leads to idea of natural selection
- correspondent with darwin
- the father of biogeography
40
on the origin of species
- outlines his theory in his book
- in editions 2-6 he included a preface which discussed all the other people who deserve credit for ideas pertaining to evolution and natural selection
41
what was darwin's chain of logic?
- all species have the capacity to increase population size exponentially if all individuals reproduce
- population size is usually maintained with reasonable limits
- natural resources are limited
- since more individuals are produced than can be supported by the available resources there must be a struggle for existence
- as a consequence only a proportion of the total offspring will survive to reproduce each generation
- given variation observable in every population and the heritability that variation, those individuals most suited to the environment will have a greater chance of surviving in the struggle for existence. the characteristics of these individuals will be passed on to the next generation through reproduction
- over numerous generations natural selection may cause gradual changes in the population, eventually leading to the production of new species
42
natural selection
- acts on individuals
- evolution acts on populations
43
what is another term for reproductive success?
- fitness
- biologically, the term fitness does not refer to strength, ability, agility, etc. it simply refer to an individual's survival and reproduction
44
what are some examples of natural selection?
- darwin's finches
- dark and light morph of the peppered moth (smoke released into the environment)
- nylon-eating bacterium (frame shift mutation - no longer eat sugar)
45
Gregor Mendel
- bohemian monk
- performed experiments on peas to discover basic laws of inheritance
- publishes work in 1866 that was largely over looked at the time
46
what traits did Gregor Mendel study with pea plants?
- height (tall or short)
- seed color (green or yellow)
- flower color (purple or white)
- flower branching (axial or terminal)
47
how did Gregor Mendel reproduce the pea plants?
- self-fertilization
- cross fertilization
48
Principles of Inheritance
- principle of segregation
- principle of dominance
- principles of independent assortment
49
principle of segregation
- offspring were either tall or short; there was no blending of traits
50
alleles
- each parent contributes one copy of a gene
- alleles that are physically expressed are dominant
- alleles that are hidden are recessive
51
dominant
- traits are goverened by an allele that can be expressed in the presence of another allele
- dominant alleles prevent the expression of recessive alleles
52
recessive
- traits are not expressed in the presence of a dominant allele
- for a recessive allele to be expressed, there must usually be two copies of the recessive allele
53
homozygous
- when two copies of the same allele are present
54
heterozygous
- individuals that have two different alleles at a locus
55
how do mendelian traits appear?
often appear as an all or nothing trait
- one locus = one trait
- one expression of that trait
56
incomplete domiance
the expressed physical trait is a combination of the dominant and recessive trait
- blending
57
co-dominance
both traits are expressed side-by-side, not blended
58
what are the forms of trait dominance?
- complete dominance
- incomplete dominance
- co-dominance
59
what are some examples of mendelian traits?
- tongue roller/non-roller
- widow's peak
- attached earlobes
- hitch-hiker's thumb
- mid-digit hair
- chin dimple
- freckles
- morton's toe
60
what is an example of a dominant trait disease?
achondroplasia (dwarfism)
61
what is an example of a recessive trait disease?
albinism
62
what are some patterns of inheritance?
- autosomal dominant
- autosomal recessive
- X-linked dominant
- X-linked recessive
- Y-linked
- mitochondrial
63
where does an organism grow?
- single-cell zygote
64
how many chromosomes do humans have?
- 23 maternal and 23 paternal
- pair of sex chromosomes
65
autosomes
- one of two possible maternal alleles and one of two possible paternal alleles
66
mitochondrial genes
sperm transfers almost no mitochondria so only maternal genes
67
what are some non-mendelian traits?
- many traits are polygenic
- eye color and skin color
68
what has a major role in regulating the expression of phenotypes?
environments
69
non-mendelian (polygenic) traits are influenced by what?
- influenced by more than one gene
- environment influences expression of traits
- phenotypes have a continuous spectrum of expression
70
mendelian traits are influenced by what?
- influenced by one gene
- environment has little effect
- discrete phenotypes
71
August Weismann
- does mouse experiments that challenges the Lamarckian idea of inheritance
- based on his results, he proposes a "germ plasm" theory of inheritance
72
germ plasm
- august weismann
- becomes shorthand for the heritable unit for several subsequent decades
73
early drosophilists
- rediscover mendel's work while trying to figure out the germ plasm
74
who coined the word gene?
- coined by danish botanists Wilhelm Johannsen
- shorthand for describing mendel's units of heredity but we still have no idea what it is
75
when were mendelian genetics generally accepted?
- by 1925
- 2.5 decades after the fruit fly
- still don't know what a gene is or how any of this works
76
who took the first image of DNA?
- rosalin franklin takes an x-ray image
77
genome
the entire set of DNA of an organism
78
chromosome
the physical structure that contains genes
79
gene
- the fundamental unit of heredity
- sequence of bases that provides information for the formation of a protein and occupies a certain locus
80
alleles
different versions of the same gene
81
mutations
- changes to the sequence
- may produce visible difference between individuals
- important means of introducing biological variation
82
microevolution
the process by which organisms change in small ways over time, usually refers to small changes in populations
83
macroevolution
refers to larger-scale evolutionary changes that result in new species
84
what are the 5 mechanisms of microevolution that are also sources of variation?
- mutation
- non-random mating
- natural selection
- gene flow
- genetic drift
85
evolution
- a change in allele frequency in a given population over time
- variation is introduced at multiple levels
86
where does variation occur in a mutation?
occurs at level of gene or chromosome
87
where does variation occur in non-random mating?
occurs at level of population
88
where does variation occur in natural selection?
occurs at level of individual
89
where does variation occur in gene flow?
occurs at level of population
90
where does variation occur in genetic drift?
occurs at level of population
91
what are the changes in allele frequency that can occur?
- direction
- non-directional (random)
92
what are the patterns of selection?
- normal distribution
- stabilizing selection
- directional selection
- disruptive selection
93
mutation
a spontaneous change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA
94
what are mutagens?
- external factors that increase the risk of mutations
- examples: some chemicals (like smoking), x-rays, UV light
95
what is the range of effect of mutations?
- lethal
- neutral
- beneficial
96
what is the benefit of having sickle cell anemia?
- protects from the worst effects of malaria
- however, sickle-cell anemia causes extreme pain and pre-mature adult death
97
non-random mating
- can change population genetic structure
- causes genotype frequencies to differ between populations
98
what are the two types of non-random mating?
- disassortative mating
- assortative mating
99
assortative mating
- mates are genetically similar, preference for similar phenotypes
- inbreeding, self-pollination
100
does assortative mating lead to more or less variation in subsequent generations?
- less
- less alleles in a population gene pool
- more chance of extinction due to reduced variation
101
what are some examples of assortative mating in humans?
- dwarfs - very high positive assortative mating - individuals with achondroplastic dwarfism pair up much more often than would be expected by chance
- IQ - slight positive assortative mating
- height - slight positive assortative mating
102
disassortative mating
mates are genetically different
- mating preference for different phenotypes
103
does disassortative mating lead to more or less variation in subsequent generations?
- more
- increased genotypic diversity
- increased chance of heterozygosity in subsequent generations
- more possible genotypes
104
natural selection
- differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotypes
105
what are some examples of natural selection acting in modern human populations?
- lactose tolerance - results from a mutation to continue producing lactase that took place in Hungary 7,500 years ago. more 75% of humans are still lactose intolerant
- wisdom teeth - overall pattern in hominin evolution of reduced prognathism and jaw musculature. now 1-4 of humans are missing atleast one wisdom tooth
106
gene flow
- process of genetic exchange between populations - migration of alleles from one population to another
- this may change the allele frequencies in one or more of the participating populations
- a potential source of locally new genetic material
107
genetic drift
- fluctuations in allele frequencies in a given population simply due to the random nature of the inheritance process and other chance events
- most dramatic in small populations or among rare alleles
108
what can genetic drift lead to?
- trait fixation - especially in small populations
- once an allele reaches 0 or 100%, it becomes fixed
109
founder effect
- types of genetic drift
- establishment of a new population by a small subset of the original population
- the allele frequency in the founder subset - the surviving population - establishes the allele frequency of the new population
- any disproportionate frequency of alleles in the founder subset will cause the new population to be different from the original population (variation among populations)
110
what is the taxonomy of living things?
- domain
- kingdom
- phylum
- class
- order
- family
- genus
- species
- dear king phillip came over for good soup
111
binomial naming
- every species has a unique scientific name that consists of tow parts - its genus and species
112
what is a species?
- there are many different concepts as to what a species is
- morphological species concept
- biological species concept
113
morphological species concept
- species are the smallest groups that are consistently and persistently distinct, and distinguishable by ordinary means
- used from linnaeus to now
- practical in everyday use - field guilds
114
what are the steps in recognizing and naming a species?
1. collect as many individual specimens as you can
2. closely describe all specimens - develop standard traits useful in characterizing similarities ad differences between individuals
3. group specimens by some measure of similarity as objectively and consistently as possible
4. formally name a grouping of individuals as members of a single species distinct from other generally similar groupings
115
what does grouping depend on?
- which species definition you are using
116
how do you name members of a species?
- conventions come from the international convention on zoological nomenclature
- genus: must be treated as a latin singular noun, unique within each kingdom
- species - used to have to be an adjective but no longer
- cannot name a species after yourself
117
what are the strengths and weaknesses of the morphological species concept?
- strengths: can be applied to all organisms - living, extinct, asexual
- weaknesses: relies on somewhat arbitrary traits, can fail to split actual species (because they converged on similar morphologies), or split species (because they are highly variable
118
what influence did Darwin have on the Linnaean classification system?
- being in the same kingdom, phylum, or other taxon as another organism means that you are more closely related to that organism than you are to other organisms outside that taxa
119
how do you read a phylogenic tree?
- capital letters = species
- numbers = nodes, and represent shared ancestors
120
biological species concept
- species are grups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups
- species are able to produce fertile offspring
- ernst mayr, 1942, systematics and the origin of species
121
what are the strengths and weaknesses of the biological species concept?
- strengths: considers genetic relatedness (ability to interbreed and produce fertile offspring)
- weaknesses: does not apply to asexual species, very difficult to establish at times
122
what steps might lead to slowing or stopping of the exchange of genes among individuals?
- differentiation
- reproductive isolation
- reinforcement
123
differentiation
individuals diverge in some way related to their survival and reproduction
124
reproductive isolation
something happens to make mating between these different types of individuals unlikely
125
reinforcement
isolating mechanisms strengthen, making successful mating between the types less and less likely
126
reinforcement mechanisms are independent evolutionary changes that change through what?
- different random mutations
- reproduction (recombination)
- natural selection under differing environments
- genetic drift in small populations
127
what is the anatomical positioning?
standing, face forward, arms at side of the body, palms forward, toes forward
128
what are the three anatomical planes?
sagittal, coronal, and transverse
129
what is the sagittal plane?
across the body down the midline
130
what is the coronal plane?
across the body down the line of the skull
131
what is the transverse plane?
slicing the body in half
132
what are the relationships to all of the positions?
- are all relative
- right and left pertains to the organism and not the observer
133
superior
anything above
134
inferior
anything below
135
lateral
away from the midline
136
medial
toward the midline
137
proximal
closer to the torso or linear feature
138
distal
away from the torso
139
posterior
back
140
anterior
front
141
what is the front for non-humans?
ventral
142
what is the back for non-humans?
dorsal
143
back of the hand
dorsal
144
front of the hand
palmar
145
front of the foot
dorsal
146
back of the foot
plantar
147
what are the two ways to study anatomy?
anatomical regions or anatomical systems
148
what are the anatomical regions?
- head and neck
- thorax
- abdomen
- pelvis
- perineum
- back
- upper limb
- lower limb
149
what is regional anatomy?
- study one particular part of the body
- normally study segments that are separated by joints
- intensively study structure and function
150
what are the segments of the lower limb?
glutes
- thigh
- leg (calf)
- foot
151
what are the segments of the upper limb?
- shoulder
- arm (bicep)
- forearm
- hand
152
what are the anatomical systems?
- integumentary
- gastrointestinal
- respiratory
- urinary
- reproductive
- endocrine
- circulatory
- nervous
- muscoskeletal
153
what is systemic anatomy?
- more so used in the medical community
- used when studying living organisms
154
why is embryology so important?
- the framework behind anatomical systems
- many embryos start the same
- identifying systems start the same and develop through embryology
155
inegumentary system
- skin, hair, and nails
- hair and nails are derived from the skin
156
gastrointestinal system
- pharynx
- esophagus
- stomach
- liver
- pancreas
- small intestine
- large intestine
- rectum
- anus
157
how does the gastrointestinal system form?
- the GI system develops as a simple gut tube
- complexity is related to functional specializations
158
respiratory system
- pharynx
- larynx
- trachea
- bronchi
- lungs
159
how does the respiratory system form?
the respiratory system develops as a branch off the embryonic gut tube
160
urinary system
- kidneys
- ureter
- bladder
- urethra
161
what is the function of the urinary system?
- the urinary system removes fluid and metabolic waste from the bloodstream
162
reproductive system in males
- gonads = testes
- ducts = ductus deferens (prostate)
- external genitalia = penis, scrotum
163
reproductive system in females
- gonads = ovaries
- ducts = uterine tubes, uterus, vaginal canal
- external genitalia = clitoris, labia
164
how do the male and female reproductive organs form as an embryo?
- humans are sexually indifferent until 6 weeks of development
- male and female structures are derived from the same set of indifferent embryonic structures
165
urogenital system in the embryo
- the renal and reproductive systems develop from the same set of structures
- most non-mammals do not separate these tracts - birds are an example of this
166
what is the job of the endocrine system?
secretes horomones
167
circulatory system
- heart
- arteries - deliver blood to the body via the aorta
- veins - deliver blood to the heart
- lymphatic
168
nervous system
- brain
- spinal cord
- peripheral nervous
169
lymphatic system
collect fluids and put back into the circulatory system
170
peripheral nervous
includes special senses such as smell and taste
- extends from the brain and spinal cord
- sensory, mechanical, olfactory
171
what are the main three parts of the brain?
- cerebrum
- cerebellum
- brainstem
172
cerebrum
higher order functions
- memory, speech, social interactions
173
cerebellum
- balance and other complex motor function
174
brainstem
- regulation of basic function (breathing, eating, blinking)
175
what are the three types of muscles?
- skeletal (striated)
- smooth
- cardiac
176
what are the kinds of connective tissue?
- bone (the skeleton is one kind)
- ligaments
- fascia
- tendons
177
musculoskeletal system
skeletal muscle system and many connective tissue
178
axial skeleton
the bones of the head and trunk
- skull
- spine
- sacrum
- ribs
- sternum
179
appendicular skeleton
the bones of the limbs
- pectoral girdle (clavicle and scapula)
- pelvic girdle (innominates)
180
what is the difference between the skull and cranium?
- the skull includes the whole head
- the cranium does not include the mandible
181
what are the developmental regions of the cranium?
- neurocranium
- basicranium
- viscerocranium
182
what are the two sets of teeth?
- deciduous
- permanent
183
what are the four types of teeth? how do they follow the dental formula?
- incisors
- canines
- premolars
- molars
- 2-1-2-3, the amount in one quarter, in the order above
184
hyoid
- midline
- suspended in the throat by ligaments
185
ear ossicles
- malleus
- incus
- stapes
- suspended in cocular fluid
186
what are the bones of the upper limb?
- clavicle
- scapula
- humerus
- radius
- ulna
- carpals
- metacarpals
- phalanges
187
what are the bones of the lower limb?
- innominate
- femur
- patella
- fibula
- tibia
- tarsals
- metatarsals
- phalanges
188
innominate
- ilium
- ischium
- pubis
- acetabulum = ball and socket that fits the femular ball
189
what are some things to remember about bone?
- bone is an organ and dynamic tissue that remodels in response to biomechanical loading and associated soft tissue structures
190
allopatric speciation
occurs when a species separates into two separate groups which are isolated from one another. A physical barrier, such as a mountain range or a waterway, makes it impossible for them to breed with one another
191
parapatric speciation
a species is spread out over a large geographic area. Although it is possible for any member of the species to mate with another member, individuals only mate with those in their own geographic region
192
sympatric speciation
occurs when there are no physical barriers preventing any members of a species from mating with another, and all members are in close proximity to one another. A new species, perhaps based on a different food source or characteristic, seems to develop spontaneously. The theory is that some individuals become dependent on certain aspects of an environment—such as shelter or food sources—while others do not
