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Intro to Sociology > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is Sociology?

A

The study of social behavior and human groups

Focus on:
* Social relationships
* Group behavior
* Societal development and change

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2
Q

What is science?

A
  • A body of knowledge gained through systematic observation
  • Uses scientific methods to collect data to objectively study phenomena
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3
Q

What are the two types of science?

A

Natural Sciences
* Study physical features of humans and ways they interact and change
* Ex: astronomy, biology, physics

Social Sciences
* Study social features of humans and ways they interact and change
* Ex: criminology, economics, political science, psychology, sociology

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4
Q

Why is sociology important?

A
  • Sharpens our understanding or transforms common sense
  • Collects and analyzes data to report findings
  • Key is that findings have been tested, even if obvious
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5
Q

What are the 3 different types of sociology?

A

Applied Sociology
* Used for practical applications of sociology
* Study violence, porn, immigration, homelessness
* Ex: environmental and medical sociology

Clinical Sociology
* Facilitates change by altering relationships
* Ex: family therapy

Basic Sociology (pure sociology)
* Seeks more profound knowledge

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6
Q

How can sociology be used in the real world?

A

Sociological research
Advising government agencies
Jobs in sociology
* Counseling, social work, sales, education

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7
Q

What is the sociological imagination?

A

An awareness to the relationship between individuals and wider society

  • Want to view our society as an outsider
  • Avoid cultural bias
  • Observations outside of personal experience
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8
Q

Who created the sociological imagination?

A

C. Wright Mills

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9
Q

How can one develop a sociological imagination?

A
  • Conducting sociological research and theory
  • Understanding the connectivity of people
  • Think globally
    —Globalization - world interdependence
  • Thinking about inequality
    —Members of society have differing amounts of wealth, prestige, and power
  • Significance of race, gender, and religion
    —How events affect groups differently
  • Social policy impact
    —How successful programs are
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10
Q

What is a theory?

A
  • A set of statements that seek to explain problems, actions, and behaviors
  • A good theory has both explanatory and predictive power
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11
Q

Why are theories needed for research?

A
  • Provides a framework
  • Enables testable predictions
  • Points to gaps in knowledge
  • Helps research be parsimonious (best explanation with fewest variables)
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12
Q

Who was Emile Durkheim?

A

French sociologist

Concerned with study of suicide
* Most understand behavior large social contexts, not just individual

Anomie

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13
Q

What is anomie?

A

State of normlessness
* Loss of direction felt in society
* Loneliness, isolation, and alienation occur
* Occurs because social controls are ineffective
* During industrialization

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14
Q

Who was Max Weber?

A

German Sociologist

Verstehen - German for understanding
* One wants to be insightful in intellectual work
* Must learn subjective meaning of behavior
* Ex: social hierarchy in organizations

Ideal types - standard of evaluating specific cases
* Focus on concepts that capture essence of activity
* Measuring rod for phenomena
* Studied a model of bureaucracy

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15
Q

Who was Karl Marx?

A

German Sociologist

Wrote the Communist Manifesto
* Focused on the struggle of the social classes
* Proletariat (working) vs. Bourgeois (upper)
* Bourgeois own the resources and power
* Proletariat have no resources except labor
* They need to unify and overthrow the class system

Power is the root of inequality

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16
Q

Who was W. E. B. DuBois?

A

American Sociologist

Focused on the struggle between races
* Knowledge vital to fight prejudice and achieving egalitarian society (equal society for all)
* Studied urban life

Double consciousness
* The division of one’s identity into 2 or more social realities
* Ex: being black in America

Founded the NAACP

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17
Q

What is functionalism (functionalist perspective)?

A

Society is made up of parts and is structured to maintain stability
* Key is stability

Manifest functions - intended, stated functions

Latent functions - unintended, unconscious functions

Dysfunction - practices that disrupt society and reduce stability
* Ex: homicide, gangs, drugs

Key functionalist thinker: Emile Durkheim

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18
Q

What is the conflict perspective?

A

Focus on tension between groups over power and resource allocation
* Tension = labor negotiations, political parties, religious groups, races

Marxist view - how social institutions help maintain privilege of some and keep others subservient

Feminist view - inequality in gender is central to all behavior
* Intersectionality - inequality multiplied by race and gender

Queer view - study society from broad spectrum of sexual identities (LGBTQIA+)

Key conflict thinkers: Karl Marx and W. E. B. DuBois

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19
Q

What is interactionism (interactionist perspective)?

A

Focus on everyday forms of interaction

Symbolic interactionism - we live in a world of meaningful objects
* Objects = people, relationships, and symbols
* Symbols = shared social meaning understood by all in society
* Nonverbal communication - gestures, tattoos, eye contact, dress codes

Key interactionist thinker: George Herbert Mead (Founder)

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20
Q

Who are the 3 people responsible for 20th century developments to sociology?

A

Charles Horton Cooley
* Focus on small group networks
* Family, gangs, and friendship networks
* How groups shape beliefs, values, and symbols
* “Looking glass self” - big contribution

Robert Merton
* Focus on poverty and how to achieve success
* Classification schemes
* Macrosociology (large scale phenomena) - Ex: crime rates
* Microsociology (small groups) - Ex: how teacher’s expectations impact students’ performance

Pierre Bourdieu
* Focus on capital
* Not just economic capital
* Cultural capital - noneconomic goods
—Education and family background
—Knowledge of arts and language - valued by elites
* Social capital - collective benefits of social networks
—Based on reciprocal trust and friendship networks

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21
Q

What is the scientific method?

A

A systematic organized series of steps that ensure maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem

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22
Q

What is the first step of the scientific method?

A

Define the problem:

State clearly what you want to investigate

What is the research question (broad, but narrow over time)

Must develop Operational Definitions
* Explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow researchers to assess the concept

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23
Q

What is the second step of the scientific method?

A

Review the literature:

Reading relevant studies, synthesizing the work, and citing them
* Use APA or ASA citations in sociology

Prior research guides new research

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24
Q

What is the third step of the scientific method?

A

Formulate the hypothesis:

Hypothesis: a speculative statement about the relationship of 2 or more variables

Variable: a measurement set of attributes (allow measurement of a concept)
* Independent variable (x) - causes the effect the researcher wants to explain (predictor variable)
* Dependent variable (y) - effect research (outcome variable)

Causality and correlations:
* Causal logic - one variable causes another
* Correlation - changes in one variable coincide with changes in another
* Correlation = causality may be present
* Correlation doesn’t equal causality

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25
What is the fourth step of the scientific method?
Select a research design: Collecting and analyzing data Select a sample (subset of population) * Population is the entire group that you want to study * Samples should be representative of the entire population Types of samples: * Random sample - every member of the population has a chance to be selected (removes bias from study) * Convenience sample - only select people who are easy to reach and closest at hand * Snowball sampling - one person will tell another to participate and so on Reliability = Consistency (RC Car) Validity = Truthful (VT - Vermont)
26
What is Reliability vs Validity?
Reliability = Consistency (RC Car) * Measure the same thing over and over again, get the same result * Test by asking different groups of people exact same questions or check answers across similar individuals Validity = Truthful (VT - Vermont) * How accurate your measure is * Problems with validity may deal with question writing
27
What is the fifth step of the scientific method?
Develop conclusions: Determine if hypothesis is supported or rejected Not all studies support hypothesis * Some have null results or contradictory results Potential reason is other factors: * Control variables - extra variables that are added to test the strength of the independent variable * Test if other factors matter
28
What are the 4 major research designs?
Surveys: * Method of collecting information through direct contact with study participants about how people think or act * Questionnaires (written) or interviewed (face-to-face) * Ask open- or closed-ended questions Ethnography: * Study of the entire setting through extensive systematic field work * Involves immersing in an area * Detailed interviews * Observations - collects information from closely watching a group or community * Participant observer - researcher participates in activities of those they observe Experiments: * An artificially or naturally created situation that allows manipulation of variables Involves 2 groups: * Experimental group: gets the treatment (independent variable) * Control group: doesn't get the treatment (remains the same) Existing Sources: * Secondary analysis - use of data that has already been collected and publicly available * Content analysis - systematic coding and objective recoding of data, guided by a rationale
29
What is the Hawthorne Effect?
People change behavior because they know they are being studied
30
What is quantitative vs qualitative research?
* Quantitative research - analyzes data through numerical or statistical forms * Qualitative research - relies on what is seen in the field, not on stats
31
What happened during the Tea Room Trade experiment?
* Laud Humphrey wanted to study sexual behavior * Involved sex in men's bathrooms and tracked them by license plates * Misrepresented himself as a "Watch Queen" * Scientific knowledge vs morality ethics * Issues: consent, privacy, deceit, and psychological/emotional impacts
32
What does the ASA Code of Ethics in Research define?
Research must: * Maintain integrity and objectivity * Respect people's rights, dignity, and diversity * Protect from personal harm * Preserve confidentiality * Seek informed consent when collected data * Disclose financial support
33
What are the 3 ethical safeguards that are put in place?
Institutional Review Boards (IRB): * Committee that review research for ethical research * Goal: protect rights and reduce harm * Includes academics and non-academics * Must approve, but can reject Informed Consent: * Provide knowledge * Potential harms/benefits Debriefing: * Done to ensure no psychological harm * Answer questions
34
What is culture?
The totality of socially transmitted ideas or knowledge, materials, and behavior Doesn't relate to refined tastes * Consists of all objects and ideas in a society
35
What is society?
A large number of people who share a common culture Independent of others outside area It's the largest form of human group Transmits culture through generations * Simplifies day-to-day interactions
36
What are cultural universals?
* Common practices that societies develop to meet human needs * Cooking, sports, marriage, religion, rituals
37
What is ethnocentrism?
* The tendency to assume that one's own culture and way of life is the norm or superior * May see other cultures as deviant * Own culture is correct
38
What is cultural relativism?
* Viewing practices of other people's behavior from the perspective of their culture * Requires unbiased efforts to evaluate other customs and values (think Weber)
39
What are the 4 elements of culture?
* Language * Norms * Sanctions * Values
40
What is language?
The foundation of culture * Key form of cultural capital (Pierre Bourdieu) * Bridges cultures (spoken and written) * Communicates norms, sanctions, and values Nonverbal communications * Gestures, facial expressions, symbols, and other visuals
41
What are norms?
Established standards of behavior maintained by societies (widely shared) Formal norms: written and specify strict punishments for violations * Laws Informal norms: not recorded, but understood * Mores * Folkways
42
What are folkways?
* Informal norm * Customary behaviors that govern everyday behaviors
43
What are mores?
* Informal norm * Culturally universal behaviors deemed necessary for the welfare of society
44
What is a law?
A formal norm which must be obeyed and is enforced by the government
45
What are sanctions?
* Positive or negative consequence for conducting a social norm * Norms and sanctions reflect the cultures' values and priorities
46
What are values?
Collective conceptions of what is desirable/undesirable, good/bad, and proper/unproper in a culture * Defines what is morally right Can be specific or general Values change overtime but are often stable
47
What are the 3 ways that culture is spread?
Innovation * Introducing a new idea to a culture * When something new is added, it can change culture * Two forms: Discovery and Invention Diffusion: * Cultural items spread to different groups or societies * Occurs through exploration, military, and mass media * Ex: K-pop, fast food, Pokemon * McDonaldization Technology: * Increases the spread of culture * Material culture * Nonmaterial culture * Culture lag
48
What is discovery?
A form of innovation where someone makes known something that already exists
49
What is invention?
A form of innovation where existing cultural items are combined to form something new
50
What is McDonaldization?
A process of diffusion where business and industry can overlap culturally Ex: McDonalds around the world * Each country has unique items on the menu
51
What is material culture?
* Physical or technological aspects of our daily lives * Ex: food, houses, factories
52
What is nonmaterial culture?
* Ways of using objects, customs, beliefs, government, and patterns of communication * More resistant to change
53
What is culture lag?
* Maladjustment of nonmaterial culture struggles to adopt to material culture * Ex: e-cigarettes
54
What are the 4 forms of cultural variation?
Dominant ideology * Set of cultural beliefs and practices that maintain powerful social, economic, and political interests * Conflict perspective - wealthy control means to produce beliefs * Feminist perspective - controls women Subculture * Segment of society whose customs, values, and traditions differ from the larger society * Ex: marijuana users, juggalos, furries, amish * Argot - specialized language Counterculture * When subculture deliberately opposes certain aspects of the larger culture * Ex: hippies (1960); militia (2020) Culture shock * Feeling of uneasiness when experiencing another culture * Ex: toilet slippers in Japan
55
What is socialization?
Patterns of behaviors and attitudes that emerge and develop over one's lifetime
56
What do we learn through socialization?
* Attitudes * Values * Culturally appropriate behaviors (norms) * Socialization shapes people's personality
57
What is nature vs nurture?
Nature - behavior through genetics * Heredity Nurture - behavior through social interactions * Social environment
58
What did the Minnesota Twin Family Study discover?
* Both genetics and socialization matter during development * Nature *and* Nurture are important
59
Who was Charles H. Cooley?
Focused on the study of the self The "Looking-Glass Self" is a product of our social interactions * Creates a self-concept * We learn who we are from interactions * Broader view of the double consciousness (W.E.B. DuBois)
60
What are the 3 stages to developing a self-concept?
* Imagine how we present ourselves * Imagine how others evaluate us * Develop feelings about ourselves based on these impressions
61
Who was George Herbert Mead?
* Pioneered the interactionist approach * Also focused on the study of the self * 3 stages of the self
62
What are the 3 stages of the self?
Preparatory stage (imitation stage): * Focused on early childhood and watching parents (imitate parent's actions) Play stage (mimic others): * Role taking - process of mentally assuming the perspective of another and responding from that image * Role playing - like playing doctor Game stage (understand interactions): * Think hide and seek
63
Who was Erving Goffman?
* Interactionist focusing on how people convey themselves * Impression management * Dramaturgical approach * Force - work
64
What is impression management?
* Altering the presentation of the self to create a distinct appearance to an audience * Ex: job interview
65
What is the dramaturgical approach?
* People are seen as performers * Think drama and the theater * Ex: look busier than you are at work
66
What is force-work?
* Efforts to maintain proper image and avoid public embarrassment * Ex: rejections on TV competitions
67
Who was Jean Piaget?
* Psychologist who focused on how interactions shape the self * Focused on children and how process which newborns are self-centered (no looking-glass self) * Cognitive Theory of Development * Social interaction is key to development
68
What are the 4 stages of child development (cognitive theory of development)?
* Sensorimotor - use senses to discover (touching things) * Preoperational - use words and symbols (talking) * Concrete - logical thinking (a clay snake is still a snake) * Formal - sophisticated abstract thought (handle ideas and values)
69
Who was Albert Bandura?
* Social learning theory * Studied learning through the use of Bobo doll experiment
70
What is the social learning theory?
* Focuses on observing, modeling, and mitating behaviors, attitudes and reactions to others * Based on conditional learning (rewards and punishments)
71
What was determined from the Bobo doll experiment?
* Children observe models (family, tv characters, teachers) * Models provide examples of behaviors to imitate * Children are more likely to model after similar people to themselves * Models will respond to behavior with reinforcement or punishment
72
What are the 6 agents of socialization?
Family (most important) * Impact begins after birth * Cultural assumptions form (gender and race) School * Socialize in norms and values of culture * Use system of rewards and punishments * Learn customs of larger society Peer groups * More important as we age * Share similar status Mass media and technology * Internet, TV, and music * Age of internet access decreases (toddler using) * Social media (Instagram, Twitter, and TikTok) Workplace * After school or full time employment * Increased time at work = stronger agent than school * Changing jobs impact socialization (avg 12 jobs in lifetime) Religion and government * Impact rites of passage * Governs traditions or life transitions * Regulates drinking, marriage, voting, and children
73
What is the life course approach?
* Perspective of looking closely at the social factors that influence people * Goes from birth to death * Focuses on aging and development * Want to study social pathways
74
What are longitudinal studies?
* Study the same people over several points in time * Not cross-sectional * Understand the development of youth * Ex: National Longitudinal Survey or Youth
75
What are cross-sectional studies?
Study different people every time
76
Who were Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck?
* Criminologists wh9o studied offending over life course * Unraveling Juvenile Delinquency (1950) * Main finding is maturation
77
What was the Unraveling Juvenile Delinquency study?
* 3 wave study of 1,000 boys (ages: 14, 25, 32) * 500 deliquent and 500 nondelinquent matched on age, national origin, IQ, and residence * Analyzed youths on 400 factors
78
Who is Glen Elders?
* Major life course reassurer * Studied the lives of Children in teh Great Depression * Devised the Principles of the life course
79
What are the 5 principles of the life course?
Life Span Development * Development is a lifelong process Agency (free will) * People make their own choices Time and Place * Historical times and geographic location matter Timing * Time in life when event happens Linked Lives * Lives linked interdependently * Ex: New relationships shape lives
80
What are the 3 T's of the Life Course?
Transitions * Changes in social roles * Include: leaving home, starting a career, becoming a parent, and retiring * Involve a change in status and identity * Early transitions have large impact because they shape future trajectories Trajectories * Sequence of roles in life * Made up of transitions * Focus on stability and change Turning Points * Involve a change in the direction of ones' life * Ex: moving away from criminal offending
81
What are common turning points and what do they provide?
Common TPs: * Returning to work/school * Military service * Residential change * Marriage TPs provide: * Identity transformation * Change routine activities * Knife off past * Provide new opportunities for social support
82
What are the 4 typical life transitions?
Early transitions * Birth - School - College Adult transitions * Moves out of home - Begins career - Enters marriage Midlife transition * Midlife Crisis - point in life when people realize they did not achieve their goals and have little time left Late life transition * Retirement - Death
83
What are the 2 types of socialization?
Anticipatory socialization * Process of preparing to take on future * Prepare for aspects of adult life * Ex: high school to college Resocialization * Process of forgetting old socialization and learning enw behaviors * Reform schools, prisons, and therapy * Happens in total institutions
84
What are total institutions?
* Institution that regulates all aspects of ones' life * Involves degradation ceremonies * Prison, military, mental hospital, convent * Coined by Erving Goffman
85
What are the aspects of a total institution?
* Under control of single authority * Any activity conducted with others in the same circumstance * Authority creates all rules and schedule * All aspects of life are to fulfill purpose of organization
86
What are the British Birth Cohort Studies?
* Study of British Youth (5 different generations) * Longitudinal study of children over life course * Questions and DNA collected * Produced 6,000 articles and books * Studies impact parenting and poverty on youths
87
What are folkways?
* Informal norm * Customary behaviors that govern everyday behaviors

Intro to Sociology (3 decks)

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