Exam 1 Flashcards
(283 cards)
1
Q
Metabolic waste
A
breakdown proteins, DNA or RNA (nitrogen)
waste gets carried to kidneys
2
Q
Hormone
A
a chemical used for communication, of an organ, that travels through the blood to affect another organ.
3
Q
Homeostasis
A
Blood volume affecting blood pressure
Osmotic balance
hemostasis
Temperature
4
Q
Osmotic balance
A
affecting cell volume, blood pressure
amount of water/material entering and exiting
5
Q
Hemostasis
A
keeping blood volume from dropping
blood clotting
6
Q
Formed element
A
cells or pieces of cells
subcategories are RBC, WBC, and Platelets
7
Q
Red blood cell
A
transport gases, O2 also carries CO2 to and from lungs & tissues
8
Q
What are the three names of an RBC
A
Red blood cells
RBC’s
Erythroeytes
9
Q
Erythrocyte
A
Red blood cell. Transports nutrients. Especially gas.
10
Q
White blood cell
A
Leukocyte. Inflammation and infection
11
Q
Leukocyte
A
White blood cell. Inflammation and infection
12
Q
WBC
A
White blood cell, leukocyte. Inflammation and infection
13
Q
Platelet
A
Thrombocyte. What clots blood.
14
Q
Thrombocyte
A
Platelet. What clots blood.
15
Q
Plasma
A
The non-formed element of blood. 90% water, 10% solutes. About 55% of a blood sample when spun down.
16
Q
Serum
A
Plasma without clot forming protein
17
Q
Albumin
A
Smallest on the “globulin” scale. A colloid. A liver protein used to bring osmotic balance, fatty acid and steroid transport. Transports “hydrophobic elements”
18
Q
Osmotic balance
A
affecting cell volume, venous return, BP
amount of water/ material entering and exiting the cell
19
Q
Fatty acid
A
Fatty acids are the building blocks of the fat in our bodies and in the food we eat
20
Q
Steroid
A
any of a group of hormones that belong to the class of chemical compounds known as steroids
21
Q
Alpha-globulin
A
enzymes that transport iron (Fe2+), lipids, vitamins (hydrophobic)
22
Q
Beta-globulin
A
Same as alpha but are also fibrinogen
23
Q
Fibrinogen
A
part of the beta globulins are soluble, unpolymerized clotting proteins.
In the beta globulins, the clotting protein (fibrin) in serum gets taken out
take fibrin out and have serum, gen is the beginning so when the end is taken out just have the start.
24
Q
Gamma-globulin
A
Immunoglobulin. Ig’s, antibodies
from WBC’s, salt minerals (Zn,Mg,Mn) form dietary absorption, bones (Ca2+), and liver (stores iron & sugars)
25
Antibody
An antibody, also known as an immunoglobulin, is a large, Y-shaped protein used by the immune system (gamma globulins)
26
Immunoglobulin
a different name for an antibody (gamma globulins)
27
Adipose
Fat cells
28
Amino acid
amino nitrogen-containing, a portion of a C-H-containing molecule
building blocks of a protein
29
Nucleotides
The basic structural unit of nucleic acids like DNA
30
Endocrine
something (inside the body) that secretes hormones into the blood to affect another organ
is an organ that makes hormones to act on other organs
31
Hematocrit
packed cell volume, PCV
Hema (red) to (cell), crit (count)
In a centrifuge, the RBC ends up on the bottom will all the formed elements. the plasma is on the top. take the total amount divided by the packed volume at the bottom
32
Packed cell volume
the amount of red blood cells and formed elements in the blood. another name for hematocrit
33
PCV
Packed cell volume
34
Buffy coat
What separates plasma from clotted RBCs in a sample
35
Centrifuge
A device that spins down and separates samples
36
Viscosity
Thickness of a liquid
37
What is transported in the blood?
O2, CO2, salts minerals, hormones, fatty acids, lipids, vitamins, iron
along with other waste products
38
What does the blood hold constant?
39
what is the relationship between Osmotic balance and blood volume?
osmotic balance can affect blood pressure which has to deal with the amount of volume of blood. therefore the amount of blood going in and out of the heart depends on the osmotic balance.
40
what is the relationship between blood volume and blood pressure
When blood volume increases, it expands your arteries and veins and leads to increased blood pressure.
41
what is the relationship between osmotic balance and cell volumes?
the amount of material entering or exiting the cell depends on the volume in that cell
cells regulate internal volume in response to osmotic stress
42
list the three classes of formed elements
Red blood cells, White blood cells, Platelets
43
1. Alternative name & function (Red blood cells)
RBC's, erythrocytes
Transport gases
O2 & CO2 to and from lungs & tissues
44
2. Alternate names & function (White blood cells)
WBC's, leukocytes
some role in immunity and inflammation (tissue damage, infection)
45
3. Alternate names and function (platelets
thrombocytes (blood clots)
not full cells, used for clotting
46
what is the difference between homeostasis & hemostasis?
homeostasis is to place the body in conditions for optimal functioning. while hemostasis keeps the blood volume from dropping to low. (it is a subset of homeostasis)
47
what is the difference between serum and plasma?
the serum is plasma without clot-forming proteins. centrifuge the clotting proteins will go to the bottom and the serum will stay at the top. Serum is a subset of plasma
48
what criterion is used to distinguish between alpha- beta- and gamma-globulins
What the globulins carry and how large they are
small (albumin, alpha, beta (fibrinogen), gamma) large
alpha: enzymes (Fe, lipids, vitamins, things that are hydrophobic)
beta: enzymes (soluble, unpolymerized clotting protein, fibrinogen)
Gamma: antibodies, immunoglobulins (salt & minerals from dietary absorption, bones, liver
49
what does hematocrit indicate
hematocrit indicates the red blood cell count
50
How is hematocrit measured
measured by centrifuging blood and dividing the total volume (plasma + buffy coat + hematocrit) by the hematocrit
51
what is the normal range of hematocrit
the normal range of RBC by volume in whole blood is 37-52%
52
what determines blood viscosity?
how the blood flows through the body (the resistance of flow specifically), thickness, gooiness, syrupiness (honey, syrup)
53
What are the risks of high blood viscosity?
high viscosity leads to high blood pressure & high hematocrit
54
Plasma components from the liver & function
the majority of proteins are made in the liver. a lot of those proteins are clotting proteins
55
Plasma components from the white blood cells & function
Albumin, antibodies, immunoglobulins, platelets
In the buffy coat
56
Plasma components from the endocrine organs & function
different hormones to affect different organs and systems
57
Plasma components from the digestive system & function
58
Plasma components from the bones & function
59
Plasma components from the respiring cells & function
60
Plasma components from the lungs & function
61
Plasma components from the fat cells & function
62
How does hematocrit numbers, blood viscosity, and blood pressure impact each other?
When one increases, the other increases.
+ Hematocrit = + Viscosity
+ Viscosity = + BP
+ BP = + Hematocrit
63
Hematopoiesis
Growth of red blood cells
64
Yolk sac
helps form blood and small cells
65
Aorta
major artery in the human body
66
Extramedullary
the production of blood cells outside of the bone marrow (not an adequate production of blood cells)
67
Femur
holds bone marrow and is a long bone
68
Humerus
holds bone marrow
69
Red bone marrow
This type of bone marrow contains hematopoietic stem cells, which are the stem cells that form blood cells
70
Stem cell
Unspecialized cells that can specialize in times of need
71
Differentiation
Cells that have a specialized purpose
72
Hematopoietic stem cell
slightly Specialized stem cells that form blood cells
73
Hemocytoblast
Immature red blood cells
74
Lymphoid stem cells
stem cells that will form B and T cells and are terminally differentiated
Lymphoid cells are pluripotent
75
Lymphocytes
a type of white blood cell that is part of the immune system
finish their differentiation in the thymus
76
Myeloid stem cells
will form granulocytes some phagocytes and RBC's
Myeloid cells are pluripotent
77
Thymus
where some stem cells go to finish differentiation
78
What is the average life span of erythrocytes
~4 months
79
What is the average life span of Leukocytes
~ 2-3 weeks
80
What is the average life span of Thrombocytes
~ 1 week
81
What is the difference between stem cell & hematopoietic stem cell
SC: unspecialised cell that divides rapidly
HemSC: slightly specialized, will only make blood cells
82
What is the difference between Lymphoid and myeloid progenitors
Ly: give rise to B& T cells
My: give rise to granulocytes, phagocytes, RBC's
83
Where is red bone marrow most commonly found in adults
Skull, vertebrae, Pelvis, Femur, Humerus
84
List in chronological order the tissues and organs that give rise to blood cells over the course of a lifetime?
start in yolk sac, get a bit more specific
aorta: in this stage is near kidneys & gonads
then to the liver and spleen (if these organs can still produce RBC's as an adult it is called extramedullary hematopoiesis
bone marrow (skull, vertebrae, pelvis, femur, humerus)
85
Cytoskeleton
network of protein filaments and tubules in the cytoplasm, giving them shape
86
Ribosome
Ribosomes are used for protein synthesis, they link amino acid together
87
Mitochondrion
hehe powerhouse of the cell
used for aerobic respiration to bring energy to the cell
88
Aerobic respiration
the use of oxygen to get energy in the form of ATP
O2 + glucose --> CO2 + H2O (ADP --> ATP)
89
Anaerobic respiration
no oxygen is used glucose is turned into ethanol or lactic acid
lactic acid we make as a waste product
90
Fermentation
he chemical breakdown of a substance by bacteria, yeasts, or other microorganisms, typically involving effervescence and the giving off of heat.
91
Carbonic anhydrase
anhydrase is without water enzyme
it is the process of CO2 in the blood turning into Bicarbonate
H2O + CO2 <--> H2CO3 <--> H+ + HCO3- (goes both directions)
92
Bicarbonate
H2CO3
dissolves in plasma better, increasing CO2 transport
93
Globin
there are 4 globin polypeptides in a hemoglobin
2 alpha and 2 beta
94
Alpha Globin
Subunits of the large protein hemoglobin
95
Beta globin
subunits of the large protein hemoglobin
96
Heme
is the disc held by Globin
is the organic ring cofactor on globin
the cell can't carry O2 or CO2 without heme
the configuration of heme holds Fe (that holds O2)
97
Cofactor
is attached to the polypeptide and allows the peptide to function (like the key to a car)
98
Erythropoiesis
the porduciton of RBC's
99
Differentiation
when a cell matures, divides less, more specialized
100
Erythroblast
in red bone marrow, make hemoglobin & lose nucleus
101
Reticulocyte
enter circulation w/ some organelles left (no nucleus) not in bone marrow
can see on a microscope look like a RBC but have blue (ribosomes)
102
Erythropoietin (EPO)
is a hormone that can effect organs
the hormone is secreated more when O2 levels drop in the blood
103
Negative feedback loop
returns to homeostasis
104
Stimulus
what has changed that the body has to adjust?
105
Receptor
measures stimulus
106
Sensor
same as receptor
107
integrator
decides if stimulus is too far from set point
108
control center
another word for integrator
109
Efferent signal
notifies organs that action is needed
110
Effector
the organ that can correct the probelm
111
Response
what the effector does
112
Result
what happens after the response
113
Phagocytosis
phage (eat), Cyt (cell) Osis(process)
process of eating a cell
114
Phagocyte
are a type of WBC that detects and eats old RBC found in liver, spleen and marrow
115
Biliverdin
116
Bilirubin
117
Bile
118
Jaundice
119
Anemia
120
Sickle cell anemia
121
Polycythemia
122
Polycythemia vera
123
How does the RBC cytoskeleton differ form other cells?
it is flexible which allows it to squeeze through tiny vessels
124
How does the difference of the RBC cytoskeleton help with circulation?
gets it in smaller blood vessels to keep blood moving and getting O2 to each tissue
125
How is the RBC shape helpful to the primary function?
the shape helps increase surface area and bring more O2 to areas, also helps with diffusion
126
in terms of anaerobic respiration how are RBCs able to function without mitochondria?
before matured they have mitochondria & make all the ATP possible before mitochondrial go away
127
What would happen to other cells types if they were to lose their mitochondria (anaerobic respiration)
they would not be able to support the function of that cell for very long
128
Why is mitochondrial loss specifically helpful for RBCs primary function? (anaerobic respiration)
the primary function is to transport O2 w/out mitochondria this can be done better bc the mitochondria wont' be using the O2 to make ATP, so all can be transported
129
How are RBCs able to function without a Nucleus & ribosomes?
they can't replace proteins, all have to be made before get rid of organels
130
What would happen to other cell types if they were to lose their nucleus & ribosomes?
they would not be able to replace proteins and would not function correctly
131
How does extrusion of the nucleus and ribosomes adversely affect the ability of RBCs to renew themselves?
will not be able to replace proteins, there is no renewal of the RBC if a protein is defunct
132
What advantage might it be for RBC function to discard their nuclei
it allows more room to store hemoglobin which is the O2 binding protein, enabling it to transport more O2
133
What is the chemical rxn catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase?
H2O + CO2 --> H2CO3 --> H+ + HCO3-
134
What is the physiological importance of carbonic anhydrase?
the CO2 in blood with water in plasma turns to bicarbonate that can dissolve in plasma better, increasing CO2 transport, taken from tissues --> plasma --> lungs
135
(question 6. for 18.3) needs to draw
what is the structure of hemoglobin including (iron ions, Heme, alpha globin, beta globin)
136
List the stages of RBC formation in order starting with Hemocytoblasts
Hemocytoblast, erythroblast, reticulocytes, erythrocytes
137
What are the distinguishing characteristics of each stage of RBC formation?
Hemocytoblast: has a nucleus
erythroblast: no more nucleus, make hemoglobin
Reticulocytes: enter circulation some organelles left to eject the rest
138
Give the feedback loop for hematocrit homeostasis (stimulus, receptor, integrator, efferent signal, effector, response, result)
Stimulus: hypoxemia (lack of O2 in the blood)
Receptor: kidneys
Integrator: kidneys
efferent signal: EPO
Effector: Bone marrow
Response: Accelerated erythropoiesis
Result: increase in blood oxygen
139
Which cell type removes aged RBC's
Phagocytosis specifically phagocytes in liver, spleen and marrow
140
How do the phagocytes tell an aged RBC from others?
the proteins in RBCs have a best used by date, The phagocytes touch the plasma membrane (made up of those proteins) if signals are present of break down of that membrane it will devour the cell
141
What organs remove aged RBCs
Liver, spleen, and marrow
142
What is the fate of iron ions when the RBC is being disposed of?
the iron ions get reused for new RBC's or stored in liver/spleen
143
What is the fate of globins after RBS disposal?
go from hemoglobin to globins that are broken down to amino acids
144
What is the fate of Heme after RBS disposal?
hemoglobin --> heme
converted to biliverdin (green), and bilirubin (yellow ish) pigments, are excreted at the liver into the intestines w/ bile & goes to gall bladder
145
What are the three causes of anemia?
Poor erythropoiesis: inherited, poor nutrition, lead exposure
Excessive RBC destruction: sickle cell anemia
Excessive bleeding
146
What pigments are made from heme
Biliverdin
Bilirubin
147
How are the pigments made from heme removed from the body?
excreted at the liver to bile to the intestines then gall bladder, removed in feces (why feces is brown)
148
Where do pigments go if RBC are destroyed too fast? What is that condition called
to the liver or spleen causing jaundice or excessive pigmentation deposited in the skin
149
What can cause polycythemia?
to many RBC, dehydration (reduces blood volume and increases [RBC], higher elevations low atmospheric O2 concentration, increased EPO release
150
what are the risks to polycythemia?
Polycythemia vera: blood clots that could cause heart attack, stroke or a pulmonary embolism
151
Bleeding
loss of blood inside or outside of the body
152
Hemorrhage
excessive bleeding
153
List the three steps in the mechanism for hemostasis and define
Vascular spasm: contraction of blood vessels
Platelet plug: a precursor to a clot (temporary fix)
Coagulation: Formation of a blood clot
154
Is the platelet plug formation a negative or positive feedback loop? and why
Positive,
is a cascade, the more of one thing the more of the other and on and on. ADP activates platelets, if still surface area around the plug more ADP is released and then more platelets. This goes on an on
155
Difference between intrinsic & extrinsic pathway
Intrinsic: in the blood vessels
Extrinsic: outside blood vessels
156
Difference between bleeding and hemorrhage
Bleeding: loss of blood inside or outside
Hemorrhage: excessive bleeding
157
difference between thrombus and embolus
Thrombus: clot inside blood vessels attached to the wall
Embolus: clot or other foreign body circulating in vessels.
158
difference b/w platelet plug & clot
Platelet plug: temporary fix/ precursor to the clot
159
Vascular
Blood vessels
160
vascular spasm
involuntary contraction of blood vessels
161
Smooth muscle
consists of thick and thin filaments that are not arranged into sarcomeres giving it a non-striated pattern.
162
Lumen
inside of a hollow structure
ex. diameter of a blood vessel
163
Endothelium
tissue surface inside the body
164
Pain receptor
Nervous cells detecting damage
165
Endothelin
small peptides that are released as a signal that travels to the effector
a 21-amino acid long peptide that is a vasoconstrictor produced from endothelial cells, vascular smooth muscle cells
166
Neurotransmitter
chemical messengers that your body can't function without. Their job is to carry chemical signals from one neuron to the next target cell
167
Platelet plug
the precursor to a clot that gets reinforced (temporary fix)
168
Collagen
fiber-like structure is used to make connective tissue
activates platelets
169
ADP
autocrine factor
causes more platelets to clump is an efferent signal
170
Autocrine factor
ADP
171
Serotonin
Paracrine factor
increases vasoconstriction
172
Paracrine factor
serotonin
173
Thromboplastin
clotting factor
174
Coagulation
formation of a blood clot
175
Clot
Fibrin mesh + trapped formed element
176
Enzyme cascade
a small stimulus to a large response
177
Fibrinogen
glycoprotein synthesized by the liver and is the major structural component of a clot
is inactive
178
Fibrin
made from fibrinogen
active, forms clot
polymerizes into a mesh that is sticky and traps RBC & platelets
179
Extrinsic pathway
outside blood vessels
180
Clotting factor
protein or ion that promotes coagulation
181
tissue factor
also called clotting factor 3
182
Factor VII
Clotting factor 7 is in the plasma from liver, mixes with III to activate X
183
Factor X
Clotting factor 10 is in plasma from liver and ends the extrinsic pathway.
Is where the pathways merge
184
Intrinsic pathway
in the blood vessel
185
Factor XII
is activated when there is damage to the endothelium
186
Common path
where the two parts converge at factor X
187
Prothrombin
Clotting factor II
cleaved by X to make Thrombin
188
Thrombin
X cleaves II to make thrombin
is a protein that helps clot
is cleaved to form fibrinogen
189
Anticoagulant
Prevents clots from forming to easily
190
Mast cell
secretes heparin
in tissues
191
Basophil
secretes heparin
in blood
192
Antithrombin & Protein C
from the liver, serves to reduce clotting
balances anticoagulants & clotting factor
193
Fibrinolysis
the process of breaking down clots
194
Thrombus
clot inside blood vessels that are attached to the wall
195
Embolus
clot or other foreign body circulating in vessels
196
Hemophilia
Genetic lack of a clotting factor
197
Thrombocytopenia
to few platelets
198
Thrombocytosis
To many platelets
199
Feedback loop for a vascular spasm
Stimulus: damage to endothelium
Sensors/ integrators: endothelial cells (cells that line blood vessels)
Efferent signals: endothelins
Effector: vascular smooth muscle
Response: constriction of blood vessels
Result: hemostasis
200
Feedback loop for platelet plug
Stimulus, receptor, integrator, efferent signal, effector, response, result
Stimulus: damaged epithelial cells
Sensor/integrator: collagen
Efferent signal: ADP
Effectors: platelets
Response: Forming a plug
Result: temporary fix, precursor to a clot
201
What triggers the extrinsic clotting pathway
when connective tissue under endothelium is exposed
202
What triggers the intrinsic clotting pathway?
when there is damage to the endothelium layer
203
What makes up a blood clot
fibrin mesh and trapped formed elements
204
Organs/ cells that secrete clotting factors
I, II, III, VII, X, XII
I: fibrinogen
II: Prothrombin
III: tissue factor, hurt cells emit III
VII: in plasma comes from liver
X: in plasma comes from liver
XII: damage to endothelium (intrinsic)
205
What is the role of factor X
plays a role in the coagulation cascade at the point of convergence b/w intrinsic & extrinsic
206
What is the role of clotting factor II
is a protein that helps get to clot, thrombin cleaves to get fibrinogen to fibrin --> fibrin forms the clot
207
WHAT PLASMA PROTEINS MADE BY THE LIVER REDUCE BLOOD CLOTTING (accidentally had caps lock on)
Antithrombin & protein C
208
What other chemical reduces clotting, and what cells make it
mast cells (tissues), basophils (form of WBC) that secrete heparin
209
how does a blood clot shrink
the platelets contract, pulling the clot in, and shrinking it until only serum is left
210
When does the fibrinolytic pathway start
once the body/ tissues begin to heal and the clot is no longer needed. The clot starts to shrink to make room for healing tissues
starts with platelets contracting
211
What is missing in hemophilia
the clotting factor
212
why is hemophilia dangerous?
small cuts can have great blood loss
213
What is the health risk of thrombocytopenia?
too few platelets to clot well, there is a risk of bleeding out/ loss of more blood with small cuts
214
What is the health risk of thrombocytosis?
too many platelets and clotting to well, can lead to stroke or a heart attack
215
Immunity
216
Humoral
217
Humoral immunity
immunity against body fluids without direct cellular contact
the process of adaptive immunity manifested by the production of antibodies by B lymphocyt
218
Antigen
219
Self molecule
220
Transfuse
221
Antibody
proteins secreted by plasma cells that bind antigens
can bind 2-10 antigens at a time
222
Plasma cell
223
Agglutinate
antibodies cross link antigen-bearing cells
clumping of RBC not like a clot
224
Hemolysis
Breaking open of blood cells
225
Blood type
Blood types are determined by the presence or absence of certain antigens, substances that can trigger an immune response if they are foreign to the body.
226
Glycoprotein
Glycoproteins are molecules that comprise protein and carbohydrate chains that are involved in many physiological functions including immunity.
227
ABO blood group
228
H antigen
229
Rh factor
230
D antigen
is a protein in RBC plasma membrane
231
Rh+
232
Rh-
233
Sensitization
234
Shock
BP crashing, respiratory distress in an intense rxn
chemicals allow blood vessels to relax which will crash the blood pressure
235
universal recipient
AB+
236
Universal donor
O-
237
HDN
238
RhoGAM
239
What is the process behind clinical blood typing
240
Describe how the antigens for blood types ABO are similar
241
Describe how the antigens for blood types ABO are different
242
Where are the ABO and Rh antigens located?
243
What kind of biochemicals are the ABO and Rh antigens
244
is sensitization needed for immune reaction for ABO and Rh
245
What antigens are on the RBCs of
(O, A, AB, B, Rh+, Rh-)
O: no antigens
A: A antigens
AB: A & B antigens
B: B antigens
Rh+: D antigen
Rh-: no D antigen
246
What antibodies are in the plasma of (O, A, AB, B, Rh+, Rh-)
O: anti-A & B antibodies
A: anti-B
AB: none
B: anti-A
Rh+: none
Rh-: anti-D (only if sensitized)
247
What is the universal donor's ABO and Rh types
248
What is the universal recipient's ABO and Rh types
249
What are the complications and causes for a severe blood transfusion rxn
Antibodies of recipient will attack RBC antigens from donor
this can cause agglutinated RBC's may block arteries causing stroke/heart attack
can also cause shock and hemolysis
250
How do ABO and Rh incompatible transfusions differ with regard to sensitization
251
what is hemolytic disease in a newborn
252
What causes hemolytic disease in a newborn
253
what are the fathers and mothers Rh blood types in hemolytic disease
254
Why does hemolytic disease rearely occur in the first pregnacy
255
when is the mother Rh seronegative and when might she become seropositive
256
when can fetal blood cells cross the placental barrier
257
when can maternal antibodies cross the placental barrier
Cross at any time
258
how can HDN be prevented for a susceptible couple
259
what are the 4 valves or the heart and the alternate names
260
where are the four valves located
261
For each valve where does the blood come from
262
for each valve where does it pass blood to
263
compare trabeculae carneae and pectinate muscles
264
compare trabeculae carneae and papillary muscles
265
compare papillary muscles and chordae tendineae
266
compare arteries & veins
267
describe the pulmonary circuit
268
describe the systemic circuit
269
What are the tissues of each heart layer starting from the luminal surface
270
What tissues make up the endocardium
271
what are the two layers of serous pericardium
272
Where are the two layers of the serous pericardium located
273
Where is pericardial fluid located
274
What makes the pericardial fluid
275
What is the function of pericardial fluid
276
Where is the fibrous pericardium attached
W
277
What is the function of the Fibrous pericardium
278
What is the fibrous pericardium made for
279
Give the names for each sulci of the heart
280
What are the locations for each sulci of the heart
281
What arteries and veins are in each sulci of the heart
282
Where does the coronary sinus empty into
283
What empties into the coronary sinus
