Exam 1 Flashcards
(153 cards)
1
Q
a major goal of cognitive neuroscience is to define the relationships between ___
A
brain structure, brain function, and “consciousness”
2
Q
brain structure pertains to:
A
distinct units (how they’re connected)
3
Q
brain function pertains to:
A
how the units of the brain operate in real time
4
Q
consciousness refers to:
A
an emergent property of brain function
5
Q
what does EEG stand for?
A
electroencephalography
6
Q
electroencephalography (EEG) provides excellent ____ resolution, but poor ____ resolution
A
temporal ; spatial (when but not exactly where)
7
Q
millisecond time resolution is characteristic of which noninvasive method?
A
electroencephalography (EEG)
8
Q
what does fMRI stand for?
A
functional magnetic resonance imaging
9
Q
fMRI provides excellent ____ resolution, but poor ____ resolution
A
spatial ; poor (where, but not exactly when)
10
Q
cognitive neuroscience was born from the combination of three related fields of research on the brain and behavior:
A
cognitive psychology, neurology, and neurophysiology/neuroimaging
11
Q
how the brain works in healthy folks
A
cognitive psychology
12
Q
cognitive psychology data was explicitly ____ based
A
behavior (avoids brain)
13
Q
how brain damage affects behavior in clinical patients
A
neurology
14
Q
neurology data was ____ based
A
deficit (behavior-brain linked)
15
Q
how healthy brains work in animal models, later including humans with the development of noninvasive brain recording methods
A
neurophysiology/neuroimaging
16
Q
true or false: despite lots of investigation, there is little agreement about what consciousness is, and how it might be studied
A
true
17
Q
over the last ~2 million years, the human cortex has nearly ____ in size
A
tripled
18
Q
cortex = ____
A
cerebral cortex
19
Q
the cortex consists of mostly ____ tissue
A
homogeneous
20
Q
the cortex is greatly ____ in primates and is critical to (but not sufficient for) “____” cognition
A
expanded ; “higher-order”
21
Q
“subcortex” refers to
A
everything else in the brain
22
Q
cerebellum, thalamus, basal ganglia, amygdala, hippocampus, midbrain, brainstem, etc
A
subcortex
23
Q
the subcortex is ____ in size and internal structure
A
variable
24
Q
the subcortex is similar in ____ and ____ with other mammals
A
structure and function
25
the subcortex is also essential to ____
higher order cognition
26
what are the three main components of the cortical surface?
gyrus, sulcus, and fissure
27
rounded protrusion of surface cortex ("mountain")
gyrus
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depression in surface cortex ("valley")
sulcus
29
a particularly deep sulcus
fissure
30
____ of cortical surface is hidden in sulci and fissures (sulci within sulci)
2/3
31
cortical folding refers to cortical "____"
cortical "packaging"
32
cortical folding allows _____, and (maybe) speeds cortical processing time by keeping all brain regions relatively close together
lots of tissue in a small space
33
4 cortical lobes:
1. frontal lobe
2. parietal lobe
3. temporal lobe
4. occipital lobe
34
the boundary region between cortical and subcortical structures located between the frontal lobe and temporal lobe
insula
35
the ____ is where the first stage of cortical processing occurs
the "primary sensory" cortex
36
V1 =
primary visual cortex
37
V2 =
primary auditory cortex
38
S1 =
sensory
39
M1 =
motor
40
this view states that the thalamus relays sensory and motor signals up to the cortical processing areas, and downstream to the brainstem (except smell)
classic view
41
recent work has identified that the structure of the thalamus is mostly (~80%) connections from one region of the cortex to another region of the cortex
modern view
42
the thalamus is heavily involved in _____ connections
cortico-cortical
43
rather than primarily carrying sensory input to cortex, and motor signals out to the body ("first order" connections"), the thalamus is instead heavily involved in cortico-cortical connections, which are referred to as ____
"higher order" connections
44
firing modes appear to enhance (____) or inhibit (____) the 'quality of a connection between brain regions
burst ; tonic
45
the firing mode is changed by relatively long periods of ____ or ____ input from brain stem and cortex
excitatory ; inhibitory
46
two divisions of the nervous system
peripheral and central
47
the autonomic nervous system is part of the ____ nervous system
peripheral
48
two components of the autonomic nervous system
sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
49
the ____ nervous system controls self-regulated action of internal organs and glands
autonomic
50
the ____ nervous system controls AROUSING for non-digestive organ systems
sympathetic
51
the ____ nervous system controls CALMING for non-digestive organ systems
parasympathetic
52
the ___ is mostly concerned with housekeeping of the body, but can show strong effects of mental state, such as anticipation or threat reactivity
autonomic nervous system
53
the ___ branch tends to prepare the body for intense action ; 'fight or flight'
sympathetic branch
54
the ____ branch tends to maintain homeostasis and repair ; 'rest and digest'
parasympathetic branch
55
our brains make up ____% of our body weight, but consume ____% of our metabolic resources
2% ; 20%
56
functional imaging is dependent on ____ to track brain activity
blood flow
57
____ were historically considered "support" cells for neurons
glial cells
58
we think that there is approximately ____ glial cell for each neuron in the brain
one
59
excitatory and inhibitory from other neurons
neuronal input
60
neuronal summation occurs at the ____
axon hillock
61
how does neuronal output travel
down the axon to synapse with next neuron
62
the ____ neuron releases neurotransmitter (NT) into the synapse, which modulates activity of the ____ neuron, depending on the neurotransmitter and the receptor type
presynaptic ; postsynaptic
63
basal forebrain constellation of cholinergic neurons, including basal nucleus of meynert ; dorsolateral pontine tegmental constellation of cholinergic neurons
acetylcholine
64
is acetylcholine more widespread or more limited?
widespread
65
is serotonin more widespread or more limited?
widespread
66
is dopamine more widespread or more limited?
more limited
67
the function of this neurotransmitter is to enable muscle action, learning, and memory
acetylcholine
68
with alzheimer's disease, ACh-producing neurons ____
deteriorate
69
the function of this neurotransmitter is to influence movement, learning, attention, and emotion
dopamine
70
excess dopamine receptor activity is linked to ____
schizophrenia
71
starved of dopamine, the brain produces the tremors and decreased mobility of ____
parkinson's disease
72
the function of this neurotransmitter is to affect mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal
serotonin
73
undersupply of serotonin is linked to ____
depression
74
____ and some other antidepressant drugs raise serotonin levels
prozac
75
the function of this neurotransmitter is to help control alertness and arousal
norepinephrine
76
undersupply of this neurotransmitter can depress mood
norepinephrine
77
___ is a major inhibitory neurotransmitter
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
78
undersupply of this neurotransmitter is linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia
GABA
79
____ is a major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory
glutamate
80
oversupply of this neurotransmitter can overstimulate the brain, producing migraines or seizures (which is why some people avoid MSG in food)
glutamate
81
"___" and "___" signals (from other neurons) flow through dendrites and cell body to the axon hillock where these signals are averaged together across the cell and over a short period of time ("___")
"go" and "stop" ; "summation")
82
if 'go' signals win, the action potential is the ____ response
all or none
83
neurons fire at a ____ intensity
fixed
84
continuous 'go' input can increase the firing rate to the limit of the refractory period, perhaps up to ____ times per second
1000
85
(EEG) records the electrical activity of the ____ in real time
cortex
86
____ brain activity is missing from EEG
non-cortical
87
pyramidal neurons in the cortex are oriented in ____
columns
88
as these neurons sum input from other neurons, their electrical charge becomes more _____ near the outside surface of the cortex
voltage-negative
89
real time or "____" EEG is useful for tracking long-lasting '____' mental states, like alertness or sleep
"raw" ; 'tonic'
90
repeated averaging enhances the small but consistent 'hidden' signal
event-related potential (ERP)
91
true or false: brains will respond pretty much the same on trial one as they do on trial one-thousand
true
92
true or false: different people's brains respond differently
false; they respond similarly
93
averaging reveals the small, consistent EERP from the noisy EEG background, sort of like averaging the single pictures of a movie - the ____ elements remain
consistent
94
things that do not change appear ____, while things that do change ____ together
bolder ; blend
95
with ERP, ____ increases, and ____ decreases
signal ; noise
96
what does ERP stand for?
event-related potential
97
early ERP components (~100 ms after stimulus onset) are mostly driven by basic ____ features, like intensity
stimulus
98
early ERP components are sometimes called ____ components, because they are determined outside the body
exogenous
99
later ERP components (~250+ ms after stimulus onset) are mostly driven by _____ meaning of stimuli
psychological meaning
100
later ERP components are sometimes called the _____ components, because they are determined inside the body
endogeneous
101
the first ERP component related to a psychological process was the ____
P300
102
a big ERP shift ~300 ms after a 'rare' event
the P300
103
the P300 was (and is) a hot area of study because it revealed brain reactivity to all sorts of 'psychological events,' including ____ events
missing
104
the P3 is not a sensory response - the P3 can also reflect a ____
broken expectation
105
____ is not recognized in the P3 (it often falls into the background) whereas ____ is noticed immediately
consistently ; change
106
a major problem with ERP
source localization
107
because the brain is ____, not all parts of the brain are perpendicular to the scalp
folded
108
the ____ the activity is from the scalp, the ____ the signal (known as volume conduction)
farther ; weaker
109
as the signal travels, it spreads out, and loses strength (relationship between depth and strength)
volume conduction
110
true or false: strong EEEG voltage could represent weak activity close to the scalp OR strong activity from deeper in the brain
true
111
EEG/ERP source localization limitation: electrical activity ____ or _____ among folded sections of cortex
combines or cancels
112
EEG/ERP source localization limitation: source ____ is difficult to distinguish from source depth
strength
113
EEG/ERP source localization limitation: the exact ____ of sources is unknown
number
114
EEG/ERP source localization limitation: each person's head _____ is slightly different
anatomy
115
what does MEG stand for?
magnetoencephalography
116
MEG looks for the ____ field that accompanies the voltage field
magnetic
117
MEG has the same ____ resolution as ERPs, but better ____ resolution than ERPs
temporal ; spatial
118
what does SQUIDS stand for?
superconducting quantum interference devices
119
do magnetic fields spread out like electric fields as they pass through the brain and skull?
no
120
without the smearing effect of volume conduction, MEG is only limited by the ____ and ____ of SQUIDS
size and number
121
MEG loses sensitivity sharply about ____ cm from the SQUID
5 cm
122
MEG is effectively blind to ___ brain structures
deep
123
MEG is really great for ____ cortical tissue, but has no sensitivity to deep cortical stuff
surface
124
what does fMRI stand for?
functional magnetic resonance imaging
125
fMRI yields colorful images that represent the ____ of brain activity with good precision, in a way that is easy to grasp
location
126
3 elements of MRI:
1. strong, fixed magnet
2. radio emitter and receiver
3. weak, variable magnets
127
magnetic hydrogen protons (in water) align with the field, and spin at a known rate (128 MHz for a 3T scanner)
strong, fixed magnet
128
resonance radio wave energy at 128 MHz will "resonate with H protons and tilt them away from the main field
radio emitter and receiver
129
imaging smaller fields are added to across the area to be scanned, which allow a 2D image to be constructed
weak, variable magnets
130
this imaging method essentially detects the density of ____ in tissue, produces a stack of sharp images in about 15 minutes
structural MRI
131
this imaging method involves repeated, lower-resolution imaging of the brain, showing interest in image intensity as it CHANGES OVER TIME)
functional MRI (fMRI)
132
instead of focusing on water concentration, fMRI focuses on the small changes in signal intensity that accompany changes in local ____ oxygenation (BOLD contrast)
blood oxygenation
133
what does BOLD contrast stand for?
blood oxygen level dependent
134
high activity states trigger local increases in blood flow and volume (via astrocytes)
the "resupply" exceeds demand by about ____%
30%
135
this 30% excess of oxygenated blood ____ MRI signal intensity, because oxygenated blood contains slightly ____ iron than deoxygenated blood
increases ; less
136
how does iron affect magnetic fields?
it perturbs magnetic fields and causes signal intensity to sharply drop
137
because BOLD tracks the blood flow change, and not the neural activity that triggered it, BOLD signal onset is ____ and lasts for several seconds after scene offset
delayed
138
fMRI's biggest weakness:
the typical fMRI sampling rate is far slower than the speed of the brain
139
true or false: consciousness is defined as correlated activity across at least 75% of the brain
false; there is little agreement about what consciousness is
140
true or false: consciousness is defined as the electrochemical activity of the brain oscillating above ~15 Hz
false; there is little agreement about what consciousness is
141
human skull volume has ____ over the last 2 million years
tripled
142
human skull volume has ____ over the last 5,000 years
a. remained stable
b. increased slightly
c. doubled
d. tripled
a. remained stable
143
human cortex shows unique structural features, such as:
a. homogeneous tissue organized in columns and layers
b. dense convolutions, including gyri and sulci
c. left-right symmetry in structure
d. all of the above
d. all of the above
144
true or false: the fissures of the cortex are unique to all individuals
false
145
true or false: subcortical structures operate independently from the cortex
false
146
true or false: the cerebral cortex contains primarily neurons, while subcortical structures are primarily glial cells
false
147
true or false: the autonomic nervous system is part of the central nervous system
false; part of the peripheral nervous system
148
true or false: psychological states can strongly influence the autonomic nervous system
true
149
what autonomic branch would be expected to be more active after eating a large meal?
parasympathetic
150
the thalamus may be critical to consciousness because of its:
a. broad structural connectivity with cortex and brainstem
b. high proportion of cortical - cortical connections
c. capability to switch between "burst" and "tonic" modes of transmission
d. all of the above
d. all of the above
151
a neuron is more likely to fire when:
a. excitatory input arrives on the cell body, vs. a dendrite
b. multiple excitatory inputs arrive simultaneously, vs. over time
c. excitatory input at the hillock follows multiple inhibitory inputs on the dendrites
d. all of the above
d. all of the above
152
neurons fire at a ____ intensity
fixed
153
a neuron is more likely to fire when:
a. excitatory input arrives on the cell body, vs. a dendrite
b. multiple excitatory inputs arrive simultaneously, vs. over time
c. inhibitory input at the hillock follows multiple inhibitory inputs on the dendrites
d. all of the above
b. multiple excitatory inputs arrive simultaneously, vs. over time
