Exam 1

Question 1

consumers and producers

Answer 1

consumers
- what do you gain from being a critical consumer of info
-read news stories based on research for future career
-evidence based treatment

producers
- why is it important to learn about research processes
- for coursework, grad school, research lab

Question 2

theory-data cycle

Answer 2

scientists collect data to test, change, update
- studies do not prove theories

Question 3

theory

Answer 3

set of proposed relationships among constructs, variables thought to play role in determining behavior

Question 4

hypotheses

Answer 4

a precise, testable statement of what researchers predict will be the outcome of a study

Question 5

data

Answer 5

any type of info collected or measured during research

Question 6

basic research

Answer 6

things done in a lab that do not have applicability to real world- setting does not tackle real world problem

ex. motivations of a depressed person

Question 7

applied research

Answer 7

will solve practical problems- can apply finding to solve real world problems

ex. test efficacy of treatment for depression in sample of trauma survivors

Question 8

peer review process

Answer 8

experts can help find virtues and flaws in publications

Question 9

Merton’s norms of science

Answer 9

universalism: scientific claims evaluated according to merit, independent of researchers reputation

communality: scientific knowledge is created by a community and findings belong to that community

disinterestedness: scientists strive to discover the truth, not swayed by conviction, idealism, politics, profit

organized skepticism: scientists question everything

Question 10

empirical journals vs. popular journals

Answer 10

popular journal: misrepresent science reported in empirical journals- misleading and not thorough

empirical journal: based on research and peer review, much more reliable

Question 11

personal experience

Answer 11

own experience is persuasive and does not have a comparison group- other things could be affecting results, experience makes it harder to isolate confounds

Question 12

5 ways intuition can be biased

Answer 12

1. swayed by a good story
2. persuaded by what easily comes to mind
3. ignoring what we cannot see
4. focusing on evidence we like best
5. biased about being biased

Question 13

availability heuristic

Answer 13

we believe things that are readily available to us

Question 14

present/present bias

Answer 14

people often fail to look for absences, paying more attention to what is present- ignore results when absence of effect is there

Question 15

confirmation bias

Answer 15

focus on evidence we like best/will confirm our beliefs

Question 16

bias blind spot

Answer 16

belief that we think we are unlikely to fall prey to other biases previously described

Question 17

importance of being skeptical

Answer 17

empiricism teaches us to base beliefs on systematic info from senses- always ask compared to what

Question 18

finding info

Answer 18

journal articles- most important
books
databases and websites

Question 19

empirical journal articles

Answer 19

report results of a research study

abstract, intro, method, results, discussion, references

Question 20

review journal articles

Answer 20

summarize all studies published in a research area

Question 21

books and chapters in edited books

Answer 21

compilation of studies on a common topic

Question 22

how to read journal articles with a purpose

Answer 22

what is the argument?
what is the evidence to support?

Question 23

legitimate journalism and disinformation

Answer 23

how food is the study behind the story?
is the story accurate?
read critically

Question 24

variable

Answer 24

something that changes over time/varies

Question 25

constant

Answer 25

something that does not change/stays the same

Question 26

measured variable

Answer 26

variables whose levels are obsreved and recorded

Question 27

manipulated variables

Answer 27

variables that the researcher controls

Question 28

levels of variables

Answer 28

level=value

Question 29

measured vs manipulated variable

Answer 29

measured: observed and reported manipulated: controlled some variables can only be measured, some can be either

Question 30

conceptual variable

Answer 30

abstract, theoretical concept 'up in the clouds'

Question 31

operational variable

Answer 31

specific, concrete turns a conceptual definition into a measured/manipulated variable

Question 32

claim

Answer 32

an argument someone is trying to make

Question 33

frequency claim

Answer 33

describes a particular level or degree of a single, measured variable ex. 39% of teens admit to texting while driving

Question 34

association claim

Answer 34

argues that one level of a variable is likely to be associated with a particular level of another variable- supported by studies w/ at least 2 measured variables

Question 35

causal claim

Answer 35

once variable causes change in level of another variable, - advice MUST have two correlated variables, temporal precedence, and no confounds

Question 36

positive association

Answer 36

high levels of one variable go w/ high levels of another

Question 37

negative association

Answer 37

high level of one variable go with low levels of the other

Question 38

zero association

Answer 38

no association between two variables

Question 39

validity

Answer 39

appropriateness of a conclusion or decision

Question 40

construct validity

Answer 40

how well variables in study are measured/manipulated - is the study measuring what is is said to be measuring

Question 41

external validity

Answer 41

extent to which results of a study generalize to some larger population, time, or variable

Question 42

statistical validity

Answer 42

how well numbers support the claim- how strong the effect is and the precision of the estimate

Question 43

internal validity

Answer 43

is there a confounding variable in play

Question 44

construct validity of frequency claim

Answer 44

how well did researchers measure their variable of interest ex. 29% of teens text while driving- how was this measured

Question 45

external validity of frequency claims

Answer 45

how id researchers choose participants and how well do they represent intended population ex 74% of the world smiled yesterday - did researchers survey every human or a small sample

Question 46

statistical validity of frequency claims

Answer 46

how well do the numbers support the claim being made - examine CI or margin of error - have multiple estimates

Question 47

construct validity of association claims

Answer 47

how well did researchers measure variable of interest - must measure for both variables

Question 48

external validity of association claims

Answer 48

how did researchers choose participatns and how well do they represent intended population

Question 49

statistical validity of association claims

Answer 49

how well do numbers support claim - consider strengh of association us CI

Question 50

which claims do not need internal validity

Answer 50

because association and frequency claims do not attempt to say one variable causes another, they cannot be evaluated for internal validity

Question 51

covariance

Answer 51

study results show that as A changes, B changes

Question 52

temporal precedence

Answer 52

study's methods ensure that A comes first in time, before B

Question 53

internal validity- causal claims

Answer 53

studys method ensures there are no plausible alternative explanations for the change in B * top priority with causal claims

Question 54

how di the Tuskegee Syphilis study violate three ethical principles of the belmont report

Answer 54

1. respect for persons - men were not informed of nature of study, no informed consent 2. beneficence - did not maximize benefits and minimie harm - participants were denied treatment 3. justice - unfairly targeted a specific group

Question 55

informed consent

Answer 55

1. info disclosure- all relevant info abt study is provided 2. comprehension- participants can understand infor provided 3. voluntariness- participants have freedom to participate or not

Question 56

protection of vulnerable groups

Answer 56

children, elderly individuals, individuals with cognitive impairments, pregnant women 1. extra safeguards- additional protections to safeguard rights 2. informed consent adaptation- information tailord to unique needs 3. ethical oversight- heightened responsibility to protect vulnerable groups ethical standards can be upheld, autonomy is promoted

Question 57

principle of beneficience

Answer 57

considering how others might be harmed, may not withhold treatments, attempt to predict risks and benefits

Question 58

APA code of conduct

Answer 58

1. beneficience and nonmalefience 2. fidelity and responsibility 3. integrity 4. justice 5. respect for peoples rights and dignity 1. resolving ethical issues 2. competence 3. human relations 4. privacy and confidentiality 5. advertising and other public statements 6. record keeping and fees 7. education and training 8. research and publication 9. assessment 10. therapy

Question 59

APA ethical standard 8

Answer 59

1. institution review boards 2. informed consent 3. deception 4. debriefing 5. research misconduct 6. animal research

Question 60

institutional review board

Answer 60

a committee responsible for interpreting the ethicality of research involving human subjects scienticts, ethicists, community members

Question 61

deception

Answer 61

when researchers withold details of the study/actively lie to them psychological research only permissible when 1. no other nondeceptive method exists to study the phenomenon of interest and 2. the study makes significant contributions to scientific knowledge and 3. the deception is not expected to cause significant harm

Question 62

debriefing

Answer 62

when the researcher describes the nature of the deception and explains why it is necessary

Question 63

animals in research

Answer 63

used when they cant use humans - institution animal care and use committee (IACUC) must approve project - at least three members: verteran, practicing scientists, member of the community

Question 64

three forms of research misconduct

Answer 64

data fabrication, data falsification, plagiarism

Question 65

conceptual variable

Answer 65

any construct that can be conceptualized but not completely measured ex. concept of depression

Question 66

conceptual variable vs its operationalization

Answer 66

conceptual- overarching theory operationalization- how it is carried out

Question 67

self report

Answer 67

record peoples answers to quesitons about themselves in a questionnaire or interview

Question 68

observational/behavioral measure

Answer 68

record observable behaviors or physical traces of behavior

Question 69

physiological measure

Answer 69

record biological data

Question 70

categorical variable

Answer 70

levels are qualitatively distinct categories ex. dog breed

Question 71

quantitative measure

Answer 71

variables are coded with meaningful numbers ex. height, weight

Question 72

ordinal variable

Answer 72

represents an order ex. distance between rankings, finishers in a race

Question 73

interval

Answer 73

numbers represent equal intervals between levels NO TRUE ZERO

Question 74

ratio

Answer 74

numbers in the variable have equal intervals and zero means zero

Question 75

validity vs reliability of a measure

Answer 75

reliability- consistency of a measure- necessary but not sufficient validity- accuracy of a measure measure can be less valid than reliable but NOT more valid than reliable

Question 76

test-retest reliability

Answer 76

consistent scores every time measure is used ex. give IQ test at beginning of semester, middle and enf - weight may not be good

Question 77

interrater reliability

Answer 77

consistent scores no matter who does the measuring

Question 78

internal reliability

Answer 78

consistent pattern of responses regardless of how the researcher has phrased the question

Question 79

correlation coefficient

Answer 79

direction of points- positive, negatve, zero - how close/far dots are from imaginary line= strength - tests reliability

Question 80

face validity

Answer 80

it looks like what you want to measure - head circumference has high face validity of hat size but low face validity of operationalization of intelligence - is the content suitable to aims

Question 81

content validity

Answer 81

the measure contains all parts that the theory says it should contain ex. if intelligence means ability to reason, the operationalization of intelligence should have questions to assess those parts

Question 82

criterion validity

Answer 82

evaluates whether the measure is associated with a concrete behavioral outcome - important for self report measures to make sure subject does not lie

Question 83

convergent validity

Answer 83

self report measure is more strongly associated with self report measures of similar constructs

Question 84

discriminant validity

Answer 84

when self report measure does not correlate strongly with measures of dissimilar constructs

Question 85

within subjects design

Answer 85

participants exposed to all levels of IV - measured on DV after exposure studying effectiveness of blood pressure medication on a group pros - ensures participants are equal -requires fewer participants - differences can be controlled cons - order effects can happen -not always possible - demand characteristics

Question 86

between subjects design

Answer 86

participants split into groups pros - subjects are unaware of manipulations cons - need a lot of subjects differences between conditions may be due to persons treatment group

Question 87

random assignment

Answer 87

ensures each participant has the same likelihood of being selected

Question 88

restricted random assignement

Answer 88

when you need to control for differences in participants characteristics between groups matching- participants matched by individual characteristics holding constant- participants sorted by characteristic and split randomly within characteristic group

Question 89

block randomization

Answer 89

presenting trials of the same condition more than once

Question 90

selection effect

Answer 90

bias introduced when sample is skewed toward specific subset of target population

Question 91

order effects

Answer 91

when order of conditions affects participants response

Question 92

maturation threat

Answer 92

changes in behavior happen over time regardless of interventions

Question 93

history threat

Answer 93

some change may have occured between pre and post testing

Question 94

regression threat

Answer 94

group average is unusually extreme at time 1, the next group measured is likely to be less extreme

Question 95

attrition threat

Answer 95

when there is a reduction in number of participants from pre to post test

Question 96

testing threat

Answer 96

specific kind of order effect there is a change in the participants as a result of taking a test more than once

Question 97

instrumentation threat

Answer 97

when measuring instrument changes over time

Question 98

observer bias

Answer 98

bias caused by researchers expectations influencing how they interpret results

Question 99

demand characteristics

Answer 99

bias occurs when participants figure out what the study is about and change their behavior

Question 100

placebo effect

Answer 100

people receive treatment and really improve because recipients believe they are experiencing valid treatment

Question 101

measurement error

Answer 101

degree to which recorded or measured variable differs from true value

Question 102

individual differences

Answer 102

individual differences spread out scores in each group

Question 103

situation noise

Answer 103

unrelated events or distractions in environment create unsystematic variability within groups