Exam 1 Flashcards
(157 cards)
1
Q
What are the levels or organization?
A
1. Atom
* Tiny particles that make up chemicals
* Hydrogen (H), Carbon (C)
2. Molecule
* Particles consisting of atoms joined together
* Water, Glucose
3. Macromolecule
* Large particles consisting of molecules
* DNA, protein
4. Organelle
* Functional part of cell
* Mitochondrion, lysosome
5. Cell
* Basic unit of structure & functions
* Muscle cell, blood cell
6. Tissue
* Layer/mass of cells w/ specific functions
* Adipose tissue
7. Organ
* Group of different tissues w/ a function
* Heart, kidney
8. Organ system
* Group of organs w/ a common function
* Digestive system, resp. system
9. Organism
* Composed of organ systems interacting
* Human
2
Q
Bodys maintenance of stable internal enviornment
* Requires most of our metabolic energy
Receptors: Provides information
Control center: Tells what particular value should be
Effectors: Cause responses to change to internal enviornment
A
Homeostasis
3
Q
Most common homeostatic mech
Effectors return conditions toward normal range
* Maintains balance
* Prevent severe changes in the body
* Long lived
Ex:
* BP
* T
* Glucose (Insulin)
A
Negative feedback loop
4
Q
Change/deviatuion is intensified, instead of reversed
* Uncommon homeostatic mech in body
* Increases until normal
* Short lived
Ex:
* Blood clots
* Breastfeeding
* Labor
A
Positive feedback loop
5
Q
Divides body into 4 parts (head, neck, trunk, & upper appendicular portion)
* Cranial cavity: Houses brain
* Vertebral cranial: Spinal cavity/cord, backbone/vertebra
* Thoracic cavity: Heart, lungs and pleura
* Abdominopelvic cavity: All of your organs other than your brain, heart, and lungs
pg 20
A
Axial portion
6
Q
Seperated from abdominopelvic by diaphragm
* Broad thin muscle
At rest, muscle is curved upwards into thorax (like dome) ; when contracting during inhalation, muscle curves down on abdominal viscera
Includes:
* L pleural cavity: Line thoracic cavity & cover lungs
* Mediastinum
* R pleural cavity: Line thoracic cavity & cover lungs
* Pericardial cavity: Surrounding heart & covering surface
pg 20 - 21 fig. 1.10, 37
A
Thoracic cavity
7
Q
Extends forward to the sternum & backward to the vertebral column
Forms boundry between R & L sides of thoracic cavity
* R & L lungs are on either side
Includes:
* Heart
* Esophagus
* Trachea
* Thymus
pg 20
A
Mediastinum
8
Q
Includes upper abdominal & lower pelvic portion
Abdominal cavity:
* Viscera found within (stomach, liver, spleen, gallbladder, kidneys, small/large intestine)
Pelvic cavity:
* Portion enclosed by pelvic bones
* Contains terminal end of large intestine, urinary bladder, & internal reproductive organs
pg 20 - 21 fig. 1.10
A
Abdominopelvic Cavity
9
Q
Line the walls of thoracic & abdominopelvic cavities & folds back to cover organs w/in cavities
* Secrete slippery serous fluid
parieal layer:
* Outer layer
* Lines wall of the thoracic & abdominopevlic cavity
Visceral layer:
* Inner layer
* Covers organs
Examples:
* Visceral & parieal Pleura: Around lungs in thorax
* Visceral & parieal pericardium: Around heart in thorax
* Visceral & parieal Peritoneum: Around abd.pelvi organs
pg 20 & notes
A
Serous membranes
10
Q
What’s the difference between parietal & visceral peritoneum?
A
Parietal peritoneum: Lines the wall of the abdominal pelvic cavity
Visceral peritoneum: Covers most organs in the abdominopelvic cavity
11
Q
Major organs include:
* Skin
* Hair
* Nails
* Sweat glands
* Sebaceous glands
Major function:
* Protects tissues
* Regulates body temp
* Support sensory receptors
pg 26 Table 1.3
A
Integumentary system
12
Q
Major organs include:
* Bones
* Ligaments
* Cartilages
Major function:
* Provide frame work
* Protect soft tissue
* Provide attachements to form muscles
* Produce blood cells
* Store Inorganic salts
pg 26 Table 1.3
A
Skeletal System
13
Q
Major organs include:
* Muscles
Major function:
* Causes movement
* Maintains posture
* Produce body heat
pg 26 Table 1.3
A
Muscular system
14
Q
Major organs include:
* Brain
* Spinal cord
* Nerves
* Sense organs
Major function:
* Detects changes
* Receives & interperates info
* Stimulates muscles & glands
pg 26 Table 1.3
A
Nervous system
15
Q
Major organs include: (Glands that secrete hormones)
* Pituitary gland
* Thyroid gland
* Parathyroid gland
* Adrenal gland
* Pineal gland
* Pancreas
* Ovaries/testes
* Thymus
Major function:
* Control metabolic activities of bodies structure
pg 26 Table 1.3
A
Endocrine system
16
Q
Major organs include:
* Heart
* Arteries
* Capillaries
* Veins
Major function:
* Move blood through blood vessels
* Transport substances throughout body
pg 26 Table 1.3
A
Cardiovascular system
17
Q
Major organs include:
* Lymphiatic vessels
* Lymph nodes
* Thymus
* Spleen
Major function:
* Returne tissue fluid from blood
* Carry certain absorbed food molecules
* Defend body against infection
pg 26 Table 1.3
A
Lymphatic system
18
Q
Major organs include:
* Mouth, tounge, teeth
* Salivary glands
* Pharynx
* Esophagus
* Stomach
* Liver
* Gallbladder
* Pancreas
* Small/Large intestine
Major function:
* Recieve/breakdown/absorb food
* Eliminate unabsorbed material
pg 26 Table 1.3
A
Digestive system
19
Q
Major organs include:
* Nasal cavity
* Pharynx
* Larynx
* Trachea
* Bronchi
* Lungs
Major function:
* I/O of air
* Gas exchange betwen air & blood
pg 26 Table 1.3
A
Resp. system
20
Q
Major organs include:
* Kidneys
* Ureters
* Bladder
* Urethra
Major function:
* Remove waste from blood
* Maintain water & electrolyte balance
* Store/eliminate urine
pg 26 Table 1.3
A
Urinary system
21
Q
Major organs include:
* Male: Scrotum, testes, epididymides, ductus deferentia, seminal vesicles, prostate glands, bulbouretgral glands, urethra, penis
* Female: Ovaries, Uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, clitoris, vulva
Major function:
* Males: Produce/maintain/transfer sperm
* Female: Produce/maintain oocytes (female sex cells), receive sperm, support development of embryo, birth process
pg 26 Table 1.3
A
Reproductive system
22
Q
Define the following positions:
Superior
Inferior
Anterior/Ventral
Posterior/Dorsal
Medial
Lateral
Bilateral
Ipsilateral
Contralateral
Proxial
Distal
Superficial
Deep
A
Superior: Above
Inferior: Below
Anterior/Ventral: Toward front
Posterior/Dorsal: Toward back
Medial: Toward midline
Lateral: Away from midline
Bilateral: Paired structures on both sides
Ipsilateral: Same side
Contralateral: Opposite sides
Proxial: Close to trunk
Distal: Away from trunk
Superficial: Close to body surface
Deep: More internal
23
Q
Define the following abdominal body regions:
Epigastric region
L hypochondrian region
R hypochondrian region
Umbilical region
L lateral (lumbar) region
R lateral (lumbar) region
Pubic (hypogastric) region
L inguinal region
R inguinal region
Pg 31
A
Epigastric: Upper middle portion of abd.
L hypochondrian region: L side of epigatric region
R hypochondrian region: R side of epigatric region
Umbilical region: Middle portion of abd.
L lateral (lumbar) region: L side of umbilical region
R lateral (lumbar) region: R side of umbilical region
Pubic (hypogastric) region: Lower middle portion of abd.
L inguinal region: L side of pubic (hypogastric) region
R inguinal region: R side of Pubic (hypogastric) region
24
Q
Define each body section/ plane:
Sagittal section:
Midsagittal /median:
Parasagittal:
Transverse / Horizontal section:
Coronal / frontol section
A
Sagittal section: Longituted cut diving body into L & R portions
Midsagittal /median: Divides body into L & R
Parasagittal: Divides body into unequal L & R portions
* Sagittal section lateral to midline
Transverse / Horizontal section: Divides body into superior & inferior parts
Coronal / frontol section: Longitudinal cut that divides body into anterior & porterior portions
25
Electronically charged atom that gains/loses electrons in order to become stable
Ion
26
Positively charged ion
Formed when atom loses electrons
Attract anions to create a 3D structure
## Footnote
pg 66
Cation
27
Negatively charged ion
Formed when atoms gains electrons
Attract cations to create a 3D structure
Anion
28
Strong chemical bonds formed when ions of opposite charge attract
* Between cation & anion
* *Dissociation in water*
* **Lose/gain electrons**
*3 steps*:
1. Transfer of an electron to form ion
2. Positive & negative ions are attracted to each other
3. Formation of bond
*Example: NaCl*
Ionic bond
29
Chemical bond formed between atoms that **shared electrons**
* Strong chemical bonds
* *Can be polar/nonpolar*
*Examples*:
* Hydrogen (H) can combine to create a molecule = (H2)
* Hydrogen molecule (H2) often combines w/ oxygen (O2) molecule = H2O
* CO2
Covelent bond
30
What is the maximun number of electrons that can be placed on each of the 3 rings of an *electron shell (space encircling neucleus)*?
Max: 18
*First shell*: 2 electrons
*Second shell*: 8 electrons
*Third shell*: 8 electrons
31
Atoms share electrons equally
Exist between atoms of the same element
Attraction to electrons is based on the size of the nucleus (**electronegativity**)
* The bigger the nucleus, the more electronegative an atom is
* Atoms of same size have same size nucleus & need equal "pull" of electrons
C & H atoms also form
Examples found in carbon dioxide & most carbon-hydrogen bonds
## Footnote
pg 67
Nonpolar covalent bonds
32
Electrons are not shared equally
* *More electrons are on one end of the molecule making that end slightly negative, while the other end is slightly positive*
Usually form where hydrogen atoms bond to & oxygen to nitrogen atoms
*Example*: Water (H2O)
## Footnote
pg 67-68
Polar covalent bonds
33
What are the 2 types of chemical reactions and how are they different?
## Footnote
pg 68-69
**Synthesis reaction:**
* 2 or more atoms, ions, or molecules formed to make a more complex structure
* *Particularly important in growth of body parts & repair worn/damaged tissue*
* **Symbolized : A+B = AB**
**Decomposition reaction:**
* Chemical bonds broken to form simpler atoms, ions, or molecules
* *Digests nutrient molecules into smaller molecules that can be absorbed into the bloodstream of the small intestines*
* **Symbolized : AB = A+B**
34
what are 3 types of electolytes & their characteristics?
**Acid**: *Substance that releases hydrogen ions (H+)*
* Carbonic acid
* Hydrochloric acid
* Acetic acid
* Phosphoric acid
**Base**: *Substance that releases ions that can combine w/ hydrogen ions*
* Sodium hydroxied
* Potassium hydroxide
* Magnesium hydroxide
* Sodium bicarb (HCO3)
**Salt**: *Substance formed by the reaction between an acid & a base*
* Sodium chloride
* Aluminum chloride
* Magnesium sulfate
35
A system that tracts the number of decimal places in a hydrogen ion concentration
* Extends from 0-14
**As hydrogen ions increase, the pH decreases**
Blood is normally slightly more alkaline
Illness can result when pH chnges
**Normal: 7.35-7.45**
**Acidic/ Acidosis: < 7.35**
* *Makes one feel disoriented & fatigued*
* Breathing may become difficult
* *Can result from diarrhea, severe vomiting, diabetes, lung & kidney disease*
**Alkalemia/ Alkalosis: > 7.45**
* *Makes one feel agitated & dizzy*
* *Caused by breathing rapidly at high altitudes, too many antiacids, high fever, anxiety, mild-mod vomiting*
## Footnote
pg 70-71
pH scale
36
Chemical systems that resist pH change
Has the **ability to maintain pH** by combining w/ hydrogen ions when they are in excess or donating hydrogen
**Common systemin blood: Carbonic acid-bicarbonate system**
## Footnote
pg 71
Buffer
37
How does the hydrogen ion concentrate compare between a solution as pH 6.4 & a solution of pH 8.4?
The solution 6.4 has 100x the hydrogen ion concetration of a solution at pH 8.4
38
What are 2 general types of chemicals, including those that take part in **metabolism (cell energy reaction)**?
Organic
Inorganic
39
Compounds that **have carbon & hydrogen**
Have *long chain/ring structures* that can form because of carbon atoms ability to form 4 covalent bonds
**Many organic compouds dissolve in water (polar)**
* **Most that dissolve in water do not release ions (AKA nonelectrolytes)**
**Most dissolve in organic liquids (ether/alcohol) (Nonpolar)**
## Footnote
pg 71
Organic compounds
40
What are examples of organic compounds?
## Footnote
pg 84
**Carbs**
* Provide main energy supply built of simple sugars
**Proteins**
* *Serve as structural materials, energy source, hormones, cell surface receptors, antibodies, & enzymes that speed chemical reactions w/o being consume*
**Lipids**
* Triglycerides (fats), phospholipids, & steroids
**Nucleic acids**
* The instructions that control activities, & direct protein synthesis
41
*Provide main energy* supply built of simple sugars
* Diet 60% carbs, 30% fat,10% protein
* *Water soluable*
**Contain hydrogen *(H)*, carbon *(C)*, & oxygen *(O)***
* Ratio H to O is 2:1 (**C**6**H**12**O**6 = glucose)
Size classification:
* **Monosaccharides**: *Single sugars - Glucose, Fructose*
* **Disaccharides**: *Double sugars - Sucrose (table sugar), lactose (milk sugar)*
* **Polysaccharides**: *Complex sugars (3+) - Starch, glycogen, **cellulose (humans cannot digest - considered dietary fiber)***
* Abundant in plants
Carbs
(Organic compound)
42
*Serve as **structural materials, energy source, hormones, cell surface receptors/ wound healing**, antibodies, & **enzymes** that speed chemical reactions w/o being consume*
* Use as last resort
**Contains *C, H, O, N* & often *S***
**Building blocks = Amino acids**
* Held together w/ peptide bonds
**3D structure (conformations), primary source is amino acid sequence**
* Can be *Denaturea (changes in 3D shape by breaking bonds - caused by heat/ extreme pH)*
**Examples: Albumins, Hg**
Proteins
(Organic compound)
43
Important component of cell membranes w/ several functions
* Supply energy used to build cell parts
* ***Triglycerides (fats - most abundant)**, phospholipids, & steroids*
* *Insoluble in water (hydrophobic), but soluble in organic solvents*
**Building blocks of triglycerides: 1 Glycerol, & 3 fatty acids**
* Used for cellular energy (more engery per g than carbs)
* **Contains C, H, & O** but has less O than carbs
**Building blocks of phospholipids: 1 Glycerol, 2 fatty acids, Phosphate group**
* Similar to triglycerides
**Steroids include 4 rings of carbon atoms & are synthesized in body from cholesterol**
* Component of cell membrane
* Used to synthosize the adrenal & sex hormone
**Example: Fat, cholesterol**
Lipids
(Organic compound)
44
Carry genetic code (DNA) & direct protein synthesis (RNA)
* **Contains *C, H, O, N, & P***
Encode amino acid sequence of protein
**Building blocks: Nucleotides**
* Consists of sugars (S), phosphate group (P), & organic bse (B)
Genetic form: Polynucleotide chain
**2 types**:
* **DNA**: Store information used to construct proteins, found in nucleus, deoxyribose sugar
* **RNA**: Help body synthesize proteins, found in cytoplasm & protein, ribose sugar
Nucleic acids
(Organic compound)
45
What is the difference between *Deoxyribonucleic acid* **(DNA)** & *Ribonucleic acid* **(RNA)**?
**Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)**:
* Store **genetic code** -replicated w/ an exact copy of original cells DNA
* **Contains sugar deoxyribose**
* Composed of nucleotides
* Only found in the nucleus
* **Double helix - (ATCGAT)**
**Ribonucleic acid (RNA)**:
* Interacts w/ DNA to conduct **protein synthesis**
* **Contains sugar ribose**
* Composed of nucleotides
* Found in nucleus and cytoplasm
* **Single stranded - (AUCGAU)**
46
Do not contain hydrogen (H) & carbon (C)
Usually dissolve in water & **dissociate forming ions (Electrolytes)**
Common compound substances found in the cell are water (H2O), oxygen (O2), carbon dioxied (CO2), & **inorganic salts (HCO3-, Cl-, K+, ect)**
Inorganic compound
47
Most abundant compound in living material
Medium for metabolic reactions
Important role for transportation
* Important *soluvent (dissolves things)*
* Polar water molecules seperate in soluvent
Can absorb & transport heat
Water
(Inorganic compound)
48
Used by organelles to release energy from nutrients in order to drive cells metabolic activities
* Necessary for survival
*Blood carries Bicarb (HCO3-) to resp. organs*
Oxygen
(Inorganic compound)
49
What is the difference between saturated & unsaturated fats?
**Saturated fats:**
* Have ***single** carbon-carbon bond*
* Most are ***solid** at room temp*
* *Most are **animal** orgin*
* **Every H has a C**
* Can raise LDL
* **Ex: Beef, pork, eggs, coconut oil, ect**
**Unsaturated fats:**
* Have *1+ carbon-carbon **double** bond*
* Most are ***liquid** at room temp*
* *Most are **plant** orgin*
* **Not every H has a C**
* **Examples: Vegetable oils, nuts, fish, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated**
50
Which solution has the highest concentration of H+ ions?
a) pH 0
b) pH 1
c) pH 7
d) pH 14
d) pH 14
51
Which solution has the lowest concentration of H+ ions?
a) pH 0
b) pH 1
c) pH 7
d) pH 14
a) pH 0
52
When would buffers donate H+ ions in our blood?
Alkalosis
53
When would buffers absorb H+ ions in our blood?
acidosis
54
What has control over blood pH?
Bicarbonate
55
What are the 2 forms of endoplasmic reticulum?
**Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum (SER):**
* No ribosomes attached and makes glycogen (polysaccharides), phospholipids, and steroids
**Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER):**
* Has ribosomes attached and modifies proteins given by ribosomes (little red dots)
56
Puts finishing touches on proteins, *packages the protein into the vesicles, and ships the protein filled vesicles towards the plasma membrane and out of the cell* (exocytosis)
Stacks of flattened membraneous sacs
Think of UPS/ FEDEX/ Amazon
Golgi apparatus
57
Powerhouse of the cell
Requires oxygen and uses it to burn glycose into **ATP (comes from Glycolisis)**
Mitochondria
58
cell organelle filled with enzymes needed to break down and dispose of debris, old organelles, and bacteria that has been ingested (endocytosis)
Think of garbage disposal
Lysosomes
59
Provides structure and movement for the cell
Forms structures that undergo Mitosis
Translates to "skeleton of the cell"
Cytoskeleton
60
What is a toxic bi-product of breaking down proteins and why is this the cause?
Ammonia
* proteins contain nitrogen
61
What ovarian hormone is involved in a postive feedback loop w/ the hypothalamus & anterior pituitary?
a.) Luteinizing hormone
b.) Gonadotropian
c.) Gonadotropian-relasing hormone
d.) Estrogen
e.) Proestrogen
d.) Estrogen
62
What hormone is released by the anterior pituitary as a part of the positive feedback loop between the anterior pituitary & the ovary?
a.) Luteinizing hormone
b.) Gonadotropian
c.) Gonadotropian-relasing hormone
d.) Estrogen
e.) Proestrogen
a.) Luteinizing hormone
63
What hormone is released by the corpus luteum in the ovary after ovulation & causes a negative feedback loop w/ the hypothalamus & anterior pituitary?
a.) Luteinizing hormone
b.) Gonadotropian
c.) Gonadotropian-relasing hormone
d.) Estrogen
e.) Proestrogen
e.) Proestrogen
64
which type of microbe is made up of single-celled orgainisms w/ no nucleus?
a.) Viruses
b.) Fungi
c.) Protozoans
d.) Bacteria
d.) Bacteria
65
Which type of pathogen is not made up of cells, & must infect a cell to reproduce?
a.) Viruses
b.) Fungi
c.) Protozoans
d.) Bacteria
a.) Viruses
66
Which type of pathogen usually has a cell wall made up of peptidoglycan?
a.) Viruses
b.) Fungi
c.) Protozoans
d.) Bacteria
d.) Bacteria
67
Which pathogen is the smallest?
a.) Viruses
b.) Fungi
c.) Protozoans
d.) Bacteria
a.) Viruses
68
Which pathogen is prokaryotic (single-celled)?
a.) Viruses
b.) Fungi
c.) Protozoans
d.) Bacteria
d.) Bacteria
69
What pathogen can be treated w/ antibiodics?
a.) Viruses
b.) Fungi
c.) Protozoans
d.) Bacteria
d.) Bacteria
70
Basic unit of structure & function in body
Measured in micrometers
Vary in size & shape
* Structure & function are inter-related
Develope specialized characteristics *(differentiated)*
Cell
71
What are the 3 major parts of a composite cell?
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Cell membrane
72
Outer body of cell
Maintains integrity of cell
Regulates entry/exit of substances
* Selectively permeable
Consits mainly of lipids & protein w/ some carbs
Framework is phospholipid bilayer
* **Water-soluble:** Heads form surface
* **Water-insoluble:** Tails form interior
* Permable to lipid-soluble substances
Cell (plasma) membrane
73
**Have nucles** in cell
Some are larger & multicellular (human like)
Some are like amebas
Some can be pathogens
**Ex:**
* Fungi
* Protozoan
* Parasitic worms (plant/animal)
Eukaryotic organisms
74
Single cell organism
**Lack nucleus**
**Ex**: Bacteria
Prokaryotic organisms
75
Not a cell
Obligate, intracellular parasite
Nonliving
Virus
76
*Unicellular & lack nuclei*
Much smaller than eukaryotes
Found everwhere there is sufficient moisture
* Ubiquitous
Reproduce asexually (*mitosis*)
*Typically have cell wall made of peptidoglycan*
Bacteria
(Prokaryotes)
77
Have membrane - bound nucleus
Obtain food from degrading organisms
Possess cell walls
Include:
* **Molds:**
* Multicellular
* Grows as long filaments
* Reproduce by sexual / asexual spore
* **Yeast:**
* Unicellular
* Reproduce by budding / sexual spores
Fungi
(Eukaryotes)
78
How can you identify bacteria?
**Bacteria shapes:**
* Bacilli
* Spiral
**Arrange as:**
* Single
* Diplo
* Tetrades
* Cluster (staphly)
* Chains (Strepto)
Ex:
* *Staph*alococcus aureus
* *Stepto*coccus pyogenes
* *Bacilli*us antrhraeis
79
Consists of networks of membranes & organelles suspended in cytosol
Cytosol + Organelles
* *Cytosol*: Fluid protion of cytoplams
* *Organelles*: Tiny solid structures w/ specific functions in the cell
Contain *cytoskeleton*
* supporting framework of protien rods & tubules
Cytoplasm
80
Consists of 2 centrioles
Centrioles produced spindle fibers during cell division, which distribute chromosomes to forming daughter cells
Control cilia
Organize cytoskeleton (gives shape)
Centrosome
81
Do not require ATP
* Diffusion
* Osmosis
* Facillitated diffusion
* Filtration
Physical (passive) Process
82
Require ATP
* Active transport
* Endocytosis
* Exocytosis
* Transcytosis
Physiological (Active) Process
83
Movement of **higher concentration to lower concentration**
* **Passive process - No ATP required**
Occurs d/t constant motion of atoms, molecules, & ions
*Equilibrium reached when the concentrations of water & the solute are equal* in both compartments
Ex: Dissolving sugar cube
(Simple) Diffusion
84
**Diffusion accross cell membrane** through ion channel / transport proteins
*** Passive process - No ATP required**
*Water-soluble* subtances:
* NA+
* K+
* Cl-
* Glucoes
* Amino acids
Facillitated Diffusion
85
*Movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane from higher concentration to lower* concentration
* **Passive process - No ATP required**
**Osmotic pressure**: Ability to generate enough pressure to lift water volume
* Isotonic (same), Hypotonic (high), Hypertonic (low)
Osmosis
86
Process that forces molecules through membranes by exerting pressure
* **Passive process - No ATP required**
Used to seperate solids from water, or small particles from long ones
Ex:
* When blood plasma leaves capillaries, water & small solutes pass through the filter, but large plasma proteins do not
Filtration
87
Movement of substances from region of low concentration to high concentration (against gradient)
* **Acitve process - ATP required**
Uses carrier molecules in cell membrane
Ex:
* Sugars
* Amino acids
* Ca 2+
* H+
* Na+ / K+ pump
Active transport
88
Movement of substances into the cell inside a vesicle
Substances too large to enter by other methods
3 types:
* **Pinocytosis**: Membrane engulfs droplet of liquid
* **Phagocytosis**: Membrane engulfs solid particles
* **Receptor-mediated endocytosis**: Membrane engulf specific substances, which have bound to receptor proteins on the membrane
Endocytosis
89
Release of substances / particles from cell
Vesices containing particles fuse w/ cell membrane & release contents
**Ex**:
* Release of neurotransmitters from nerve cells
Exocytosis
90
Series of changes a cell undergoes from time it froms until time it divides
Stages:
* Interphase
* Mitosis
* Cytokinesis
Cell cycle
91
**Cell grows & replicates genetic materia (DNA) to prepare for mitosis (Nuclear division)**
Cell synthesizes organelles, membranes,
& biochemicals to prepare for cytokinesis (Division of cytoplams)
Phases:
* **G1**: Cell growth, prepares for DNA replication
* **S (synthesis)**: DNA replicated
* **G2**: Cell prepares for mitosis & cytokinesis
Interphase
92
What are the major events in mitosis?
**Prophase**: Chromatin condenses into chromosomes; centrioles move to opposite sides of cytoplasm to form spindle; nuclear emebrane & nucleolus disperse
**Metaphase**: Chromosomes align midway between centrioles. Spindle fibers from the centrioles attach to the centromeres of the sister chromosome
**Anaphase**: Centromeres separate, & sister chromatids move apart, w/ each chromatid now an individual chromosomes ; spindle fibers shorten & pull these new individual chromosomes toward centrioles
**Telophase**: Chromosomes elongate & from chromatin threads; nuclear membranes form around each chromosome set; nucleoli form; microtubules break down
93
Part of virus or full virus enter the cell
Ribosomes & enzyme of cell used to make parts of virus
Particles leave cell to infect other cells
Viral infection
94
**Function:**
* Protection
* Secretion
* Absorption
* Excretion
**Location:**
* Covers body surface
* Cover & line internal organs
* Compose glands
**Distinguishing characteristics:**
* Lack blood vessels, cell readily divide, cells are tightly packed. injuries heal rapidly
* ***Shapes***: **Squamous** (*flat*), **cuboidal** (*cube-shaped*), **columnar** (*tall*)
* ***Layers***: **Simple** (*1 layer*), **Stratified** (*2+ layers*), **pseudostratified** (*Looks layered but isnt*)
Epithelial tissue
95
**Functions:**
* Binds, support, protect
* Fill spaces, store fat, produce blood cells
**Location:**
* Widely distributed throughout the body
**Distinguishing characteristics:**
* Mostly have good blood supply
* Cells are farther apart than epithelial cells
* Extracellular matrix inbetween
Connective Tissue
96
**Functions:**
* Movement
**Location:**
* Attached to bone
* In walls of hollow internal organs
* Heart
**Distinguishing characteristics:**
* Able to contracts in response to specific stimuli
Muscle tissue
97
**Functions:**
* conduct impulses for coordination, regulation, integration, & sensory reception
**Location:**
* Brain
* Spinal cord
* Nerves
**Distinguishing characteristics:**
* Cells communicate w/ each other & other body parts
Nerve Tissue
98
composed of cells that produce & secrete substances into ducts or body fluids
2 types of glands:
**Endocrine**: Secrete into tissue fluid / blood
**Exocrine**: Secretes into ducts that open onto surface
Glandular epithelium
99
What are 2 structural types of exocrine glands?
**Unicellular**: Composed of one cell
* Ex: Globlet cell - Secrete mucus
**Multicellular**: Composed of many cells
* Sweat glands, salivary glands, ect
* Simple or compound
100
What are 3 types of glandular secretions?
**Merocrine gland**: Secrete fluid products by exocytosis
* Salivary & sweat glands, pancreas
**Apocrine glands**: Lose small part of cell during secretion
* Mammary & ceruminous glands
**Holocrine glands**: Release entire cells filled w/ product
* Sebacous glands
101
What are the 3 major types of connective tissue?
**Fibroblast**:
* Most common fixed cell
* Large star-shaped cell
* Secrete fibers into extracellular matrix
**Macrophages (Histiocytes)**:
* Usually attached to fibers, but can detach & wander
* Conduct phagocytosis
* Defend against infections
**Mast Cells**:
* Large cells, located near blood vessels
* **Release heparin** to prevent blood clotting
* **Release histamine**, which causes an inflammatory response
102
What are the 3 types of fibers in connective tissue that fibroblasts produce?
**Collagen fibers:**
* Thick threads of collagen, body's main structural protein
* Great tensile strength & flexible, slightly elastic
* Found in ligaments & tendons
**Elastic (Yellow) fibers**:
* Composed of elastin protein; branching
* Can stretch & return to origninal shape
* Not as strong as collahen fibers
* Found in voal cords, resp. air passage
**Reticular Fibers**:
* Thin, branching fibers of collagen
* Form delicate, supporting network
* Found in spleen, liver
103
Forms thin, delicate membranes
Cells are mainly fibroblasts
Sel-like substance
Collagenous & elastic fibers
In subcutaneous layer
Beneath most epithelia, where it nourishes nearby epthielial cells
Areolar connective tissue
(Loose connective tissue)
104
Stores fat
Push their nuclei to one side
Crow out other cell types
Cushions & insulates
Beneath skin (Subq layer), behind eyeballs, around kidneys, & space between muscles
Adipose tissue
(Loose connective tissue)
105
Composed of thin reticular fibers
Supposrt walls of internal organs
Walls of liver & spleen
Reticular connective tissue
(Loose connective tissue)
106
Closely packed collagenous fibers
Fine network of elastic fibers
Most cells are fibroblasts
Very strong, withstands pulling
Binds body parts together
Tendons, ligaments, dermis
**Poor blood supply**; slow to heal
Dense **regular connective tissues**
107
Randmoly organized, thick, interwoven collagenous fibers
Can withstand tension exerted from dfferent directions
Dermis of skin
Around skeletal muscles
Dense **Irregular connective tissue**
108
Abundant yellow elastic fibers
Some collagenous fibers
Fibroblasts
Attachments between bones of spinal column
Walls of hollow organs, such as large arteries, airways
Parts of heart
Elastic quality, streches
Dense **elastic connective tissue**
109
Rigid, specialized connective tissue
* Models for developing bone
Support, framework, attachments
Protection of underlying tissue
**Chondrocytes** (cartilage cells) in **lacunae** (chambers), surrounded by matrix
*Lacks blood supply; heals slowly*
Covered by **perichondrium** (Connective tissue), which provides some nutreints to the cartilage
**3 types of cartilage**: Hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage
Cartilage
(Specialized connective tissues)
110
What are the 3 types of cartilage?
**Hyaline:**
* Most common type
* Fine collagen fibers
* End of bones in joints, nose, & resp passages
* Embryonic
**Elastic Cartilage:**
* Flexible, d/t elastic fibers in matrix
* External ear, larynx
**Fibrocartilage:**
* Very tough, d/t many collagenous fibers
* Shock absorber
* Intervertebral disc
* Pads of knee & pelvic girdle
111
Most rigid connective tissue
Solid matrix, composed of mineral (ca) salts & collagen
Supports structures, produces blood cells. stores & releases Ca, & P
Attachment for muscles, form skeleton
Contains osteocytes (bone cells)
2 types: Compact & spongy
Bone / Osseous Tissue
(Specialized connective tissues)
112
Cells suspended in fluiid matrix **(plasma)**
*RBC transport gases*
*WBC defend against infection*
*Platelets help blood in clotting*
Transports substances around body
Blood
(Specialized connective tissues)
113
Line body cavities that do not open to outside of body
Inner linning of thorax & abdomen; covers groin
Simple squamous epithelium + areolar connective tissue
Secrete serous fluid for lubrication, reducing friction
Serous membrane
114
Line cavities & tubes that open to the outside of body
Lining digestive, resp, urinary, & reproductive tract
Epithelium + areolar connective tissue
Globlet cells secrete mucus
Mucous membrane
115
Covers body surface
Commonly called skin
Part of integumentary system
Cutaneous membrane
116
Different from epithelial membrane
Composed entirely of connective tissue
Line joint cavities
Synovial membrane
117
Long, thread-like cells, **striated**, many nuclei
* Stimulated by nerve cells
Function: Voluntary movement skeletal parts
Location: Muscles usually attached to bones
Skeletal muscle tissue
118
Shorter cells, single, central nucleus, **Non-striated**
* Contains spindle-shaped fibers
Function: Involuntary movement internal organs
Location: Walls of hallow internal organs
Smooth muscle tissue
119
Branched cells, striated, single nucleus, intercalated discs
Function: Heart movement, involuntary
Location: Heart muscle
Cardiac muscle tissue
120
Cells w/ cytoplasmic extensions
* *Neuroglia* support and nourish neurons
Function: Sensory reception, release of neurotransmitters, conduction of electrical impulses, & regulate body functions
Location: Brain, spinal cord, & periphreal nerves
Nervous tissue
121
What is another name for skin?
Cutaneous membrane
122
What are the accessory structures of the skin?
Hair
Nails
Glands
Sensory receptors
123
The skin contains what 2 tissues?
Epithelial & Connective tissue
124
What is the difference between the epidermis & dermis of the skin?
**Epidermis:**
* Outer layer
* Stratified squamous epithelium
* Basement membrane between epidermis & dermis
* Contains Keratin
**Dermis:**
* Inner layer
* Thicker of the 2 layers
* Connective tissue
* Contains collagenous & elasric fibers
125
Beneath dermis ; insulating layer
Areolar & adipose connective tisue
Not considered part of the skin
Contans blood vessels that supply skin
Subcutaneous layer (hypodermis)
126
Tough, fibrous, waterproof protein made & stored in cells
Found in epidermis
Keratin
127
Process of hardening, dehydration, & keratin accumulation that occurs in epidermal cells as they migrate outward
Keratinization
128
Cells that reach the outer surface, become tightly packed, develope desmosomes, & form outer layer
Stratum corneum
129
Located in stratum basale
Melanoma arises
Produce dark pigment melanin
Absorbs UV light from sunlight & provides skin color
* **causes melanocytes to produce more melanin, and skin darkens**
* **overwhelms body’s natural protective responses against skin cancer**
Distributed into keratinocytes, to protect skin cells from damaging effects of UV light
* DNA damage
* Fibroblast damage
* Skin cancer
Melanocytes
130
What are the 3 factors affecting skin color?
***Hereditay factors:***
* All people have **same number of melanocytes, but vary in amount of melanin** produced (genetic control)
* Varying distribution and size of melanin granules.
* **Albinos** inherit mutation in melanin genes; **lack melanin**
***Environmental Factors:***
* Sunlight.
* UV light from sunlamps/ tanning beds
* X-rays.
***Physiological Factors:***
* Oxygenation in blood of dermal blood vessels: pinkish, cyanosis.
* *Vasodilation/vasoconstriction* of dermal blood vessels.
* Accumulation of carotene pigment from diet.
* *Jaundice*.
131
T/F: Basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma arise from epithelial cells in skin
True
132
Inner layer of skin that contains dermal papillae between epidermal ridges
* Binds epidermia to underlying tissue
Connective tissue layer that conatines fibers, hair follicles, sweat glands, sebaceous glands,& nerve processes
Sensory receptors:
* **Lamellated (*Pacinian*)**: Corpuscles for pressure
* **Tactile (*Meissner's*)**: Corpuscles for light touch
Dermis
133
The dermis consists of what 2 layers?
**Papillary layer:**
* Superficial layer.
* Areolar connective tissue.
* Thinner of the 2 layers.
* Location of dermal papillae.
**Reticular layer:**
* Deeper layer.
* Dense irregular connective tissue.
* Thicker of 2 layers.
134
Protective covering on ends of fingers & toes
3 parts:
* **Nail plate**: Overlies nail bed
* **Nail bed**: Surface of skin, under nail plate
* **Lunula**: Most active growing region; pale, half-moon-shaped region at base of nail plate
Nails
135
**Tube-like depression of epidermal cells** from which hair develops
* **Extends to dermis or subcuatenous layer**
Hair present on all surfaces of skin except palms, soles, lips, npples, parts of external reproducive organs
**3 parts:**
* Hair bulb (Dividing cells)
* Hair root
* Hair shaft (dead,epidermal cells)
*Hair papilla contains blood vessels to nourish hair*
*Hair color is d/t type & amount of melanin*
**Arrector Pili muscle (goosebumps)**
Hair Follicles
136
**Holocrine gland**
Usually associated w/ hair follicles
**Produce sebum**
* Contains fatty material and cellular debris
* Keeps hair and skin soft and waterproof
**Acne vulgaris is a disorder**
Become clogged with extra sebum and epithelial cells
* *Clogged glands provide good environment for anaerobic bacteria; infection results in inflammation*
**Treated best with Vitamin A derivatives, systemic antibiotics, salicylic acid, benzoyl peroxide**
Sebaceous Glands
(Skin gland)
137
AKA "Sudoriferous glands"
Widespread in skin
Originate in deeper dermis or hypodermis as ball-shaped coils
Sweat glands
(Skin glands)
138
Axillary and groin areas
Secrete by exocytosis
Respond to emotions, pain
Less numerous sweat glands w/ secretions that develop oders
Wet skin during pain, fear, emotional upset, & sexual arousal
Apocrine sweat glands
(Skin glands)
139
Most numerous.
Respond to elevated body temperature
Abundant sweat gland w/ oderless secretions
Eccrine (merocrine) glands
(Skin gland)
140
What is the function of skin?
Versatile, and vital for homeostasis.
Protective covering, barrier against harmful substances and microorganisms
Prevents some water loss & contains sensory receptors.
Excretes some wastes.
Helps produce Vitamin & regulate body temperature.
141
T/F: When body is too warm, body responds with vasoconstriction of dermal blood vessels and vasodilation of deep blood vessels
False: When body is too warm, body responds with *vasodilation* of dermal blood vessels and *vasoconstriction* of deep blood vessels
141
T/F: Body temp is monitored by Hypothalamus
True
141
What are the 4 methods of heat loss?
**Radiation**: Primary method, infrared heat rays escape.
**Conduction**: Heat moves from skin to cooler objects.
**Convection**: Heat loss into circulating air currents.
**Evaporation**: Sweat changes into a gas, carries heat away
142
Which 3 active body cells are major heat producers?
skeletal muscle
cardiac muscle
cells of the liver
143
**Abnormally high body temperature**
* Can occur on hot, humid day, when sweat cannot evaporate.
When air temperature is high, radiation is less effective.
Body may gain heat from hotter air.
**Skin becomes dry, person gets weak, dizzy, nauseous, with headache, rapid pulse**
Hyperthermia
144
**Abnormally low body temperature**
* Can result from prolonged exposure to cold, or illness.
**Shivering** is involuntary skeletal muscle contraction, caused by hypothalamus.
**Progresses to confusion, lethargy, loss of reflexes and consciousness**.
**Without treatment, organs shut down**
Hypothermia
145
T/F: Extreme vasodilation can collapse cardiovascular system
True
146
Sum of all chemical reactions occurring in a cell
Metabolic reactions usually occur in pathways or cycles
Cellular Metabolism
147
What are the 2 types of Metabolic reactions?
**Anabolism**: small molecules are built into larger ones; *requires energy*
**Catabolism**: larger molecules are broken down into smaller ones, *releases energy*
148
Provides materials for maintenance, cellular growth and repair. Requires ATP made during catabolism
* Example: Dehydration synthesis
Smaller molecules are bound together to form larger ones.
H2O produced in the process.
Used to produce polysaccharides, proteins, triglycerides
Anabolism
149
Breaks down larger molecules into smaller ones; ATP is produced
* Example: Hydrolysis
Used to decompose carbohydrates, proteins, lipids.
Uses H2O to split the substances.
Reverse of dehydration synthesis.
Catabolism
150
Globular proteins that catalyze specific reactions
* *Specific to a particular substrate*
* *Ability to recognize substrate depends on shape of active site of enzyme*
* Shape (conformation) is vital to its functioning
Increase rates of chemical reactions & lower the activation energy necessary to start reactions
Names often:
* Contain name of substrate.
* **End in –ase**.
* **Examples: lactase, protease, lipase**
Enzymes (protein catalysts)
151
What Factors can alter conformation of an enzyme?
Excess heat
Radiation
Electricity
Specific chemicals
Extreme pH values
Some poisons
152
Inactivation of an enzyme (or any other protein), due to an irreversible change in its conformation
Results in an enzyme being unable to bind to its substrate.
Denaturation
153
**Non-protein substance that combines with the enzyme to activate it.**
Some help fold active site into proper conformation.
Some help bind enzyme to substrate.
Can be ion, element, small organic molecule (coenzyme) or **inorganic**
Cofactor
154
**Organic** molecule that acts as cofactor
Most are vitamins, which are essential organic molecules that humans must get from their diet
Coenzymes
155
Main energy-carrying molecule in the cell
* **Energy from ATP breakdown is used for cellular work**
Second and third phosphates are attached by high-energy bonds
* When ATP loses terminal phosphate, it become **adenosine diphosphate (ADP)**
* ADP can be converted back into ATP by attaching a third phosphate (*phosphorylation*)
Consists of 3 portions:
* Adenine.
* Ribose (a sugar).
* 3 phosphates in a chain
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
