Final Flashcards
(260 cards)
1
Q
Type of connective tissue with a liquid matrix
Transports vital substances
Maintains stability of interstitial fluid
Distributes heat
A
Blood
2
Q
Form mostly in red bone marrow, and are called “formed elements”:
* Red blood cells (RBC s)
* White blood cells (WBC s)
* Platelets (cell fragments)
A
Blood cells
3
Q
What are the percentages of each of the following blood components listed below?
Plasma
RBC
WBC
Platelets
A
Plasma - 55%
RBC - 45%
WBC / Platelets - < 1%
4
Q
What is the percentage of RBC called?
A
Hematocrit (HCT) or Packed cell volume (PCV)
5
Q
Also called erythrocytes
Biconcave disc shape
One-third hemoglobin:
* Oxyhemoglobin (with O2)
* Deoxyhemoglobin (without O2)
Lack nuclei and mitochondria
Cannot divide
Can produce ATP through glycolysis
A
Red Blood Cells (RBCs)
6
Q
What do changes in RBC reflect?
A
Changes in blood’s oxygen carrying capacity
7
Q
RBC formation
Occurs in red bone marrow.
Low blood O2 causes kidneys and liver to release EPO (erythropoietin), which stimulates RBC production.
Negative feedback mechanism
Hemocytoblast –>erythroblast –>reticulocytes –> erythrocytes
Within a few days many new RBCs appear in the blood
A
Erythropoiesis
8
Q
What 3 dietary factors affect RBC production?
A
Vitamin B12:
* Absorbed from small intestine
* Required for DNA synthesis
* Necessary for growth & division of all cells
Iron:
* Absorbed from small intestine
* Conserved during RBC destruction & made avalible for reuse
* Required for Hemoglobin synthesis
Folic Acid:
* Absorbed from small intestine
* DNA synthesis
9
Q
What happens in RBC deconstuction?
A
Hemoglobin Breakdown
10
Q
Protect against disease.
Leukocytes have limited life spans, so they must constantly be replaced.
Produced in red bone marrow, under control of hormones: interleukins and colony-stimulating factors
Nomal range: 5,000 - 10,000
Leukocytosis:
* High WBC
* Acute infection, vigorous exercise, great loss of body fluids
Leukopenia:
* Low WBC
* Typhoid fever , flu, measles, mumps, chicken pox, AIDS, polio, anemia
A
WBC
11
Q
What are the 2 categories or WBC & what type(s) of WBC is found in each categorie?
A
Granulocytes: Have granular cytoplasm, and short life span
* Neutrophils.
* Eosinophils.
* Basophils.
Agranulocytes: Do not have noticeable granules
* Lymphocytes.
* Monocytes.
12
Q
Small, light purple granules in acid-base stain.
* Most common WBC
* Strong phagocytes.
Lobed nucleus; 2-5 sections.
Also called PMNs, polymorphonuclear leukocytes.
First to arrive at infection site.
* Elevated in bacterial infections.
54% - 62% of leukocytes.
A
Neutrophils
13
Q
Coarse granules; stain deep red in acid stain.
Bi-lobed nucleus.
Defend against parasitic worm infestations.
1% - 3% of leukocytes.
Elevated in parasitic worm infestations and allergic reactions
A
Eosinophils
14
Q
Large granules; stain deep blue in basic stain.
* Least abundant
Granules can obscure view of nucleus.
Release histamine to stimulate inflammation.
Release heparin to stop blood from clotting.
Less than 1% of leukocytes.
Similar to eosinophils in size and shape of nuclei.
A
Basophils
15
Q
Largest of the WBCs.
* Strong phagocyte
Spherical, kidney-shaped, oval or lobed nuclei.
Agranulocytes.
Leave bloodstream to become macrophages.
3% - 9% of leukocytes.
Live for weeks – months.
Phagocytize bacteria, dead cells, debris.
A
Monocytes
16
Q
Slightly larger than RBCs; smallest WBCs.
Large spherical nucleus surrounded by thin rim of cytoplasm
Agranulocytes
T cells and B cells are major types; both important in immunity.
* T cells directly attack pathogens, tumor cells.
* B cells produce antibodies.
25% - 33% of leukocytes.
May live for years.
A
Lymphocytes
17
Q
What is the function of a WBC?
A
Diapedesis: WBCs can squeeze between the cells of a capillary wall and leave blood vessel; then migrate toward infection site.
Cellular adhesion molecules: proteins that direct leukocytes to injury sites.
Phagocytosis: Engulfing and digestion of pathogens; neutrophils and monocytes are most mobile and active phagocytes.
Inflammatory response: Reaction that restricts spread of infection; promoted by basophils, by secretion of heparin and histamine; involves swelling and increased capillary permeability.
Positive chemotaxis: Attraction of WBCs to an infection site, by chemicals released by damaged cells.
18
Q
How do neutrophils respond to a bacterial invasion?
A
By accumulating in the infection site, and destroying the pathogens by phagocytosis
19
Q
Cytoplasmic fragments of megakaryocytes (type of cell in red bone marow)
Produced by hemocytoblasts in response to the homone, thromopoirtin
Lack nucleus
Help in homeostasis in damaged blood vessels, by sticking to broken surface
Release serotonin
A
Platelets (thrombocytes)
20
Q
Clear, straw-colored.
Liquid portion of blood.
55% of blood volume.
92% water.
7% protein
1% other solutes (nutrients, electrolytes, waste products)
Contains organic and inorganic chemicals.
Transports nutrients, gases, hormones, and vitamins.
* Albumin & fibrinogen
Helps regulate fluid and electrolyte balance and maintain pH.
A
Plasma
21
Q
Which 2 gases are imporant in the blood?
A
Oxygen
Carbon Dioxide
22
Q
What nutrience is found in the blood?
A
Amino Acids
Simple sugars
Nucleotides
Lipids:
* Fats (triglycerides)
* Phospolipids
* Cholesterol
23
Q
What are the 8 electrolytes found in plasma?
A
Sodium (Most abundant)
Potassium.
Calcium.
Magnesium.
Chloride (Most abundant)
Bicarbonate.
Phosphate.
Sulfate.
24
Q
Refers to the stoppage of bleeding.
Actions that limit or prevent blood loss include:
* Blood vessel (vascular) spasm.
* Platelet plug formation.
* Blood coagulation.
Most effective in small blood vessel injuries.
Needs healthy liver, Ca, platelets, Vit K, & liver protein
A
Hemostasis
25
T/F: Blood clotting is apart of positive feedback mech.
True
26
Cascade produces prothrombin activator
Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin to thrombin
Thrombin stimulates increased activity of the intrinsic cascade
Positive feedback
27
Triggered by exposure of platelets to collagen.
Platelets adhere to rough surface
1. Break in vessel wall
2. Blood escaping through break
3. Platelets adhere to each other, to the end of broken vessel & to expose collagen
4. Platelet plug helps control blood loss
Platelet plug formation
28
**Any molecule that evokes an immune response.**
If immune system finds a foreign antigen in the body, it produces antibodies against the antigen
Antigen
29
**Proteins that react against a specific antigen**
In an incompatible blood transfusion, donor red blood cells (RBCs) evoke an immune response in the recipient, and antibodies in the recipient’s plasma agglutinate the donor RBCs
Antibodies
30
What are the antigens & antibodies for the blood types below?
**A:**
**B:**
**AB:**
**O:**
**A:**
* Antigen: A
* Antibody: Anti-B
**B:**
* Antigen: B
* Antibody: Anti-A
**AB:**
* Antigen: A & B
* Antibody: Neither A or B
**O:**
* Antigen: Neither A or B
* Antibody: Both Anti- A & Anti-B
31
What type of blood can each of the following recieve?
**A:**
**B:**
**AB:**
**O:**
**A:** A & O
**B:** B & O
**AB:** A, B, & O (Universal recipient)
**O:** O (Universal donar)
Positive w/ positive, Negative w/ negative
32
Why is an individual with AB blood called a universal recipient?
**Type AB blood lacks both Anti-A and Anti-B antibodies**, so an individual with type AB can receive donor RBCs of any type
33
Why is an individual with type O blood called a universal donor?
**Type O lacks the A and B antigens, so type O RBCs could be donated to a person with any blood type**. Often, when given to a person with a different blood type, only the RBCs are donated (since plasma contains antibodies)
34
**Includes several Rh antigens or factors, but most important one is *antigen D***.
**Rh positive:** Presence of antigen D or other Rh antigens on RBC membranes.
**Rh negative:** Do not have the Rh antigens on RBC membranes.
*Anti-Rh antibodies form only in Rh-negative individuals in response to the presence of red blood cells with Rh antigens.*
The seriousness of the Rh blood group is evident in a fetus that develops the condition **erythroblastosis fetalis or hemolytic disease of the newborn**
Rh blood group
35
In what order does the heart pump blood through the blood vessels?
arteries → arterioles → capillaries → venules → veins → back to heart
36
What 2 things make up the cardiovascular system?
Heart & blood vessels
37
The L side of the heart contains _ blood, while the R side of the heart contains _ blood.
A) Deoxygenated ; Oxygenated
B) Oxygenated ; Deoxygenated
B) Oxygenated ; Deoxygenated
38
What's the difference between pericardium & visceral pericardium?
**Pericardium:** Covering over heart and large blood vessels
**Visceral pericardium:** Inner layer of serous membrane; attached to surface of heart; also called the epicardium
39
What are the 3 distinct heart walls?
Epicardium
Myocardium
Endocardium
40
Outer layer - thin layer
**AKA "visceral pericardium"**
**Serous membrane of connective tissue covered w/ epithelium** & *include blood capillaries, lymph capillaries, & nerve fibers*
* Forms protective outer covering
* **Secrete serous fluid**
Epicardium
41
Middle layer - thickest layer
**Composed of cardiac muscle tissue**
Cardiac muscle tissue separated by connective tissue & *include blood capillaries, lymph capillaries, & nerve fibers*
* **Contracts to pump blood from the heart chambers**
Myocardium
42
Inner layer - thin layer
**Membrane of epithelium** & underlying connective tissue, Including blood vessels
* **Forms protective inner lining of all heart chambers & valves**
Endocardium
43
What are the 4 chambers of the heart & their function?
**Right atrium:** *Receives blood returning from systemic circuit (from the superior and inferior vena cavae and coronary sinus)*; pumps blood to right ventricle.
**Right ventricle:** *Receives blood from the right atrium*; pumps blood to lungs.
**Left atrium:** *Receives blood from the pulmonary veins*; pumps blood to left ventricle.
**Left ventricle:** *Receives blood from the left atrium*; pumps blood to systemic circuit
44
What are the 4 valves or the heart & their function?
**Tricuspid Valve:**
* *Prevents blood from moving from R ventricle into the R atrium during ventricular contraction*
* Located in R atrioventricular Orifice
**Pulmonary Valve:**
* *Prevents blood from moving from the pulmonary trunk into the R ventricle during ventricular relaxation*
* Located in entrance to pulmonary trunk
**Mitral Valve / Bicuspid Valve:**
* *Prevents blood from moving from the L ventricle into the L atrium during ventricular contraction*
* Located in L atrioventricular Orifice
**Aortic Valve:**
* *Prevents blood from moving from aorta into L ventricle during ventricular relaxation*
* Located in entrance to aorta
45
How does blood flow through the heart?
1. Blood from systemic circuit
2. Venae cavae & coronary sinus
3. R atrium *(through tricuspid valve)*
4. R ventricle *(through pulmonary valve)*
5. Pulmonary trunk
6. Pulmonary arteries
7. Pulmonary capillaries / Lungs
8. Pulmonary veins
9. L atrium *(through mitral / bicuspid valve)*
10. L ventricle *(through aortic valve)*
11. Aorta
12. Blood from systemic circuit
46
Which arteries supply blood & O2 to tissues of the heart?
**L & R Coronary arteries**
* First 2 branched of aorta
47
The _ _ drains (deoxygenated) blood from the heart wall to the coronary sinus.
A) Cardiac veins
B) Cardiac artery
C) Coronary sinus
D) Coronary artery
A) Cardiac veins
48
The _ _ returns deoxygenated blood to the R atrium.
A) Cardiac veins
B) Cardiac artery
C) Coronary sinus
D) Coronary artery
C) Coronary sinus
49
The events of a heartbeat.
Heart chambers function in a coordinated manner.
**Heart actions are regulated so that atria contract (atrial systole) while ventricles relax (ventricular diastole); then ventricles contract (ventricular systole) while atria relax (atrial diastole).**
Cardiac cycle
50
What happens during atrial systole and ventricular diastole of the cardiac cycle?
The ventricles are relaxed.
The A-V valves open and the semilunar valves close.
About 70% of *blood flows passively from atria into ventricles.*
*Atrial systole pushes the remaining* 30% of *blood into the ventricles, causing ventricular pressure to increase*
51
What happens during ventricular systole and atrial diastole of the cardiac cycle?
The A-V valves close.
The chordae tendineae prevent the cusps of the valves from bulging too far backward into the atria.
The atria relax.
Blood flows into atria from venae cavae and pulmonary veins.
The ventricular pressure increases and opens the semilunar valves.
Blood flows into the pulmonary trunk and aorta.
52
Sounds are due to closing of heart valves, and vibrations associated with a sudden slowing of blood flow during contraction/relaxation of chambers
**“Lubb”:**
* The first heart sound.
* Occurs during ventricular **systole**.
* Associated with **closing of the A-V valves**.
**“Dupp”:**
* The second heart sound.
* Occurs during ventricular **diastole**.
* Associated with **closing of the pulmonary and aortic semilunar valves**.
Heart sounds
53
A group of clumps and strands of specialized cardiac muscle tissue, which initiates and distributes impulses throughout the myocardium
* Coordinates the events of the cardiac cycle.
1. SA Node
2. Atrial syncytium (In atrial walls)
3. Junctional fibers
4. AV Node
5. AV bundle
6. Bundle branches
7. Purkinje fibers
8. Ventricular syncytium (In ventricular walls)
Cardiac Conduction System
54
Define the following components of the cardiac conduction system:
SA Node
Internodal Atrial Muscle
Junctional fibers
AV (Atrioventricular) Node:
AV (Atrioventricular) Bundle (of His)
Left and Right Bundle Branches
Purkinje fibers
**SA (Sinoatrial) Node:** Pace maker; Initiates rhythmic contractions of the heart
**Internodal Atrial Muscle:** Conducts impulses from SA node to atria
**Junctional fibers:** Conducts impulses from SA node to AV node
**AV (Atrioventricular) Node:** Delays impulse, so that atria finish contracting before ventricles contract. Conducts impulses to AV Bundle
**AV (Atrioventricular) Bundle (of His):** Conducts impulses rapidly between SA node and bundle branches.
**Left and Right Bundle Branches:** Split off from AV bundle, conduct impulses to Purkinje fibers on both sides of heart.
**Purkinje fibers:** Large fibers that conduct impulses to ventricular myocardium.
55
What are the waves of an EKG called?
**P wave:** **Atrial depolarization**; occurs just prior to atrial contraction.
**QRS complex (3 waves):** **Ventricular depolarization**; occurs just prior to ventricular contraction.
**T wave:** **Ventricular repolarization**; occurs just prior to ventricular relaxation
**ST segment:** **Ventricular contraction**
56
What are the intervals of an EKG?
**PQ (PR) interval:** 0.12-0.20 s
**QRS wave:** < 0.12 s
**QT interval:** 0.34-0.43 s
57
Whats the difference between Parasympathetic impulses & Sympathetic impulses?
**Parasympathetic impulses:** Vagus nerves decrease heart rate, due to influence on SA and AV nodes
**Sympathetic impulses**: Accelerator nerves increase heart rate, due to influence on SA and AV nodes, and ventricular myocardium.
58
List & describe the 5 types of blood vessels:
**Arteries:** carry blood away from the ventricles of the heart.
**Arterioles:** receive blood from the arteries, and carry it to the capillaries.
**Capillaries:** sites of exchange of substances between the blood and the body cells.
**Venules:** receive blood from the capillaries, and conduct it to veins.
**Veins:** receive blood from venules, and carry it back to the atria of the heart.
59
Which of the following helps make up an artery? *(SATA)*
A) Lumen
B) Valve
C) Endothelium of tunica interna
D) Connective tissue (Elastic & collagen fibers)
E) Tunica media
F) Tunica externa
A) Lumen
C) Endothelium of tunica interna
D) Connective tissue (Elastic & collagen fibers)
E) Tunica media
F) Tunica externa
60
Which of the following helps make up a vein? *(SATA)*
A) Lumen
B) Valve
C) Endothelium of tunica interna
D) Connective tissue (Elastic & collagen fibers)
E) Tunica media
F) Tunica externa
All of the above
61
What are the 3 layers (or tunica) of an artery?
**Tunica interna (intima):** innermost layer
**Tunica media:** smooth muscle & elastic tissue
**Tunica externa (adventitia):** outer layer, connective tissue
62
Smallest-diameter blood vessels
* Extensions of the inner lining of arterioles
* They are **semi-permeable**
*Connect the smallest arterioles and the smallest venules*
The higher the metabolic rate in a tissue, the denser its capillary networks
**Walls consist of endothelium (simple squamous epithelium) only**
**Blood flow regulated mainly by precapillary sphincters**: *smooth muscle surrounding capillary when it branches off arteriole or metarteriole*
Capillaries
63
Thinner walls than arteries (3 layers or tunics).
Tunica media less developed
**Carry blood under relatively low pressure to the heart**
* Valves prevent backflow of blood & serves as blood reservoir
*Function as blood reservoirs.*
Many have flap-like valves
Veins
64
**The force the blood exerts against the inner walls of the blood vessels**
*Circulates the blood*
Most commonly **refers to pressure in systemic arteries**
*Blood moves from higher to lower pressure throughout the system*
* Pressure moves throughout the vascular system
**Varies w/ cardiac O/P (CO)**
* BP = CO x PR
BP
65
What factors increase arterial blood pressure?
Increase in blood volume
Increase HR
Increase stroke volume
Increase blood viscosity
Increase periheral resistance
66
Whats the difference between Stroke volume & cardiac O/P?
**Stroke volume:** Volume of blood that enters the arteries with each ventricular contraction
* (~70 ml/beat)
**Cardiac output (CO):** Volume of blood discharged from a ventricle each minute
* CO = SV x HR
67
How does blood volume affect blood pressure?
Blood pressure (BP) is directly proportional to blood volume.
Any factor that changes blood volume can change BP.
Example: Decreased blood volume, due to hemorrhage, decreases BP.
68
**Force of friction between blood and walls of blood vessels.**
Blood pressure must overcome PR in order to flow.
*Factors that change PR also change blood pressure.*
**Vasoconstriction of arterioles increases PR, which increases the blood pressure**
When blood is pumped out of ventricles, arteries swell; rapid elastic recoil sends the blood through the arteries, against PR in arterioles and capillaries.
Peripheral resistance
69
Venous Blood flow is dependent on...
Skeletal muscle contraction.
Breathing movements.
Vasoconstriction of veins.
70
Blood vessel form what 2 pathways?
Pulmonary circuit.
Systemic circuit
71
Blood in **pulmonary arteries and arterioles is low in O2 and high in CO2** while Blood in **pulmonary venules and veins is rich in O2 and low in CO2**.
Gas exchange occurs in pulmonary (alveolar) capillaries.
*Transports oxygen-poor blood from the heart to the lungs. In lungs, blood picks up O2 and drops off CO2*
* Oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart
**Right ventricle → pulmonary trunk → right and left pulmonary arteries → lobar branches, repeated divisions → pulmonary arterioles → pulmonary capillaries → pulmonary venules and veins → left atrium.**
Pulmonary circuit
72
**Oxygen-rich blood moves from left atrium to left ventricle. Contraction of left ventricle sends blood into systemic circuit**
*Transports oxygen-rich blood from the heart to all body cells*
* Oxygen-poor blood returns to the heart
Blood delivers nutrients, including oxygen, to cells, and removes wastes
**Left ventricle → aorta → all arteries and arterioles leading to body tissues → systemic capillaries → systemic venules and veins → right atrium**
Systemic circuit
73
What is the larges artery in the body that supplies blood to all of the systemic arteries?
Aorta
74
whats the difference between basilic and cephalic veins?
**Basilic vein** *joins brachial vein*
**Cephalic vein** *joins axillary vein*
75
What 5 organs are incuded in the upper Resp. tract?
The nose
Nasal cavity
Sinuses
Pharynx
Larynx
76
What organs are incuded in the lower Resp. tract?
Trachea
Bronchial tree
Lungs
77
**Goblet cells interspersed throughout the *pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium* produce mucus**
Particles and microorganisms from inhaled air are trapped in mucus
*The cilia sweep mucus toward pharynx*
Microorganisms in swallowed mucus are destroyed in stomach
Nasal cavity
78
**Air-filled spaces in the *maxillary, frontal, ethmoid, and sphenoid bones* of the skull**
Open into the nasal cavity
Mucous membrane lining is continuous with the lining of the nasal cavity
Sinuses (paranasal sinuses)
79
**Passageway for air** from the nasal cavities **and food from oral cavities**
* *contains the tonsils (immune system)*
**Three parts:**
* Nasopharnyx (Transmits only air)
* Oropharynx (Transmits food & air)
* Laryngopharnx (Transmits food & air)
Pharynx
80
**Cartilaginous structure between the pharynx and the trachea**
Protects the trachea and lower tract
* *Houses the vocal cords*
* Glottis: opening to the larynx
* Epiglottis: flap of tissue that covers
**3 large single cartilages:**
* **Thyroid**: largest cartilage.
* **Cricoid**: below thyroid cartilage.
* **Epiglottic**: part of flap-like epiglottis.
3 pairs of small cartilages:
* Arytenoid.
* Corniculate.
* Cuneiform.
Larynx
81
larynx contains 2 horizontal vocal folds composed of muscle and connective tissue:
**False vocal cords:**
* Upper (vestibular) folds.
* No sound production.
**True vocal cords:**
* Lower folds.
* **Vocal sounds**.
* Opening between them is called the glottis.
Vocal Cords
82
**Extends downward anterior to the esophagus**
* Wall has ***20 C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage** to prevent collapse of trachea*
**Enters thoracic cavity, it splits into the left and right primary bronchi.**
Lined with **ciliated mucous membrane** with goblet cells (**pseudostratified columnar epithelium**).
Trachea
83
Consists of **branched airways leading from the trachea to the microscopic air sacs in the lungs**.
* *Part of lower resp tract*
**Primary (main) bronchi arise from the trachea**, and each enters one of the lungs.
Starting with the trachea, branching airways resemble an upside-down tree
Bronchial Tree
84
Provide surface area for gas exchange.
During gas exchange, O2 diffuses through alveolar walls to enter the blood.
CO2 diffuses from the blood
Alveoli
85
What 2 structures seperate the lungs from each other?
Heart
Mediastinum
86
The R & L side of the lungs have how many lobes?
R side: 3 Lobes
L side: 2 Lobes
87
Where are the following muscles found in the resp. tubes?
**Pseudostratified ciliated columnar**
**Simple cuboidal epithelium**
**Simple squamous epithelium**
**Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium** *in larger tubes.*
**Simple cuboidal epithelium** *in respiratory bronchioles.*
**Simple squamous epithelium** *in alveoli.*
88
Define the following:
* **Visceral pleura**
* **Parietal pleura**
* **Pleural cavity**
**Pleura:** Sac around lungs
**Visceral pleura:** inner layer of serous membrane; attached to surface of lung.
**Parietal pleura:** outer layer of serous membrane; lines thoracic cavity.
**Pleural cavity:** potential space between visceral & parietal pleura; *Contains serous fluid for lubrication*
89
the movement of air from outside of the body into the bronchial tree and the alveoli.
**The actions responsible for these air movements are inspiration (inhalation), and expiration (exhalation).**
One inspiration + the following expiration = a respiratory cycle.
Breathing (or ventilation)
90
**Diaphragm contracts downward.**
*Surfactant reduces surface tension in the alveoli, to help lung expansion*.
A deep (forced, maximal) inspiration requires contraction of several other muscles, to enlarge thoracic cavity even more
Inspiration
91
What are the 6 major events in Inspiration?
1. Impulses conducted on phrenic nerves to muscle fibers in diaphragm, contracting them
2. As dome-shaped diaphragm moves downward, the thoracic cavity expands
3. External intercostal muscles contract raising ribs & expanding thoracic cavity further
4. Intra-aveolar pressure decreases
atmospheric pressure, greater than intra-alveolar pressure, forces air into resp. trach throgh air passages
5. Lungs fill w/ air
92
Forces responsible for normal resting expiration come from:
* **Controlled by pons**
* **Elastic recoil** of lung tissues and abdominal organs, as tissues return to their original shape at the end of inspiration
* **Surface tension** that develops on the moist surfaces of the alveolar linings shrinks alveoli
**Resting *(normal, quiet)* expiration is a *passive process* without muscle contraction.**
*Forced expiration is due to contraction of internal intercostal and abdominal muscles*.
Expiration
93
What are the 4 major event in Expiration?
1. Diaphragm & external resp. tract muscles relax
2. Elastic tissue of lungs, stretch during inspiraition, suddenly recoil, & surface tension pulls in on aveolar walls
3. Tissue recoiling around the lungs increase the intra-aveolar pressure
4. Air forced out of lungs
94
Define the following respt. volumes:
**Tidal volume**
**Inspiratory reserve volume**
**Expiratory reserve volume**
**Risidual volume**
**Tidal volume:** volume moved in or out during a normal breath **(smallest)**
**Inspiratory reserve volume:** volume that can be inhaled during forced breathing in addition to tidal volume **(Largest)**
**Expiratory reserve volume:** volume that can be exhaled during forced breathing in addition to tidal volume **(Same)**
**Residual volume:** volume that remains in lungs at all times **(Same)**
95
Groups of neurons in the brainstem that control breathing.
**Respiratory areas initiate impulses that cause inspiration and expiration, and control rate and depth of breathing**
Main respiratory areas:
* **Medullary respiratory center** (Contains ventral & dorsal respiratory groups)
* **Pontine respiratory groups**
Respiratory Areas
96
What factors can affect breathing?
**Partial pressure of O2 (Po2)**
**Partial pressure of CO2 (Pco2)**
**H ion in body fluids**
Degree of stretch of lung tissue.
Emotional state.
Level of physical activity.
*Receptors involved include mechanoreceptors and central and peripheral chemoreceptors.*
**Main controlling factors are usually the Pco2 + H ion concentration**
97
How is oxygen transported from the lungs to the body cells?
Hemoglobin
Plasma
98
What Factors increase the release of O2 from hemoglobin?
Decrease in P o2.
Increase in P co2.
Increase in acidity.
Increase in temperature.
99
How is CO2 transported to the lungs?
As CO2 dissolved in plasma. (7%)
*Bound to hemoglobin, forming carbaminohemoglobin*. (23%)
As part of a **bicarbonate** ion (70%)
* Majority is transported this way bicarbonate ions form as a result of a reaction between carbon dioxide and water: CO2 + H2O = H2CO3 = H+ + HCO3-
100
**Renal cortex:** Outer region of kidney
**Renal medulla:**Inner region; composed of renal pyramids
**Renal columns:** Extensions of cortex that dip into medulla
**Hilum:** Entrance to renal sinus
**Renal pelvis:** Funnel-shaped sac; superior end of ureter
* **Major calyces:** Large tubes that merge to form renal pelvis
* **Minor calyces:** Small tubes that merge to form major calyces
**Renal capsule:** Fibrous capsule around kidney
Kidney structures
101
What is the function of the kidney?
Filter blood
Produce urine
102
What are the structures of a nephron?
Glomerular Capsule
Glomerulus
Proximal tubule
Nephron loop (of Henle)
Descending limb
Ascending limb
Distal tubule
103
What is the difference between Cortical nephrons & Juxtamedullary nephrons?
**Cortical nephrons:**
* *Majority of nephrons* (85%)
* Lie almost completely in renal cortex
* Have *short nephron loops*
* **Renal corpuscles located near surface of kidney**
**Juxtamedullary nephrons:**
* Smaller percentage of nephrons (15%)
* Have *long nephron loops, that extend deep into medulla*
* **Renal corpuscles lie deep in renal cortex**
* **Important in regulating water balance and urine concentration**
104
What are the 3 processes of urine formation?
**Glomerular filtration:**
* Performed by specialized glomerular capillaries (first capillary bed)
* Water and small molecules are filtered
* Filtered fluid enters renal tubules, and becomes tubular fluid
**Tubular reabsorption:**
* Transfer of filtered substances from renal tubules to peritubular capillaries (second capillary bed)
* Only reclaims useful substances, while wastes continue to become urine
**Tubular secretion:**
* Transfer of certain substances from peritubular capillaries to renal tubules
* Adds waste products and excess substances to forming urine
105
First step of urine formation
* Water and small dissolved molecules and ions can be filtered
Substances move from the blood in the glomerulus into the glomerular capsule
*Formed as substances filter from glomerulus into the glomerular capsule*
*Glomerular capillaries* are much more permeable than other capillaries, due to **fenestrae**, tiny openings in walls
Glomerular filtration
106
T/F: Surfactant reduces surface tension
True
107
What factors affect Glomerular filtration rate (GFR)?
Directly proportional to the net filtration pressure (NFP),
* **Anything that changes NFP will change GFR** *(glomerular or capsular hydrostatic pressure, or glomerular colloid osmotic pressure)*
* Changes in diameter of afferent or efferent arteriole
108
Reverse of tubular reabsorption
**Movement of substances from plasma of peritubular capillaries into fluid of renal tubules**
**Active transport mechanisms function in tubular secretion**, but work in opposite direction as tubular reabsorption
Substances secreted into forming urine: Drugs, ions such as K+ and H+
**Secretion of H+ ions is important in regulating the pH of body fluids**
**K+ ions are secreted as Na+ ions are reabsorbed in distal tubule**
Tubular secretion
109
**A by-product of amino acid catabolism**
Plasma concentration reflects amount of protein in diet
**Enters renal tubules through glomerular filtration, and undergoes both tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion**
Up to 80% is reabsorbed; the rest is excreted in the urine
Urea
110
**A product of nucleic acid metabolism**
**Enters the renal tubules through glomerular filtration**
**Active transport completely reabsorbs filtered uric acid**
About 10% of uric acid enters urine through tubular secretion, and is excreted
*Excess uric acid may lead to painful condition called gout*, in which uric acid precipitates in blood and forms crystals in joints
Uric acid
111
Composition reflects the volumes of water and solutes that the kidneys must excrete or conserve to maintain homeostasis
*Composition of urine varies, due to dietary intake and physical activity, but typically:*
* Consists of about 95% **water**
* Contains *metabolic waste products*: **Urea, uric acid, and creatinine**
* Contains small amounts of **amino acids** and varying amounts of **electrolytes**
Urine composition
112
What is the normal pH range for urine?
4.6 - 8.0
113
How is urine stored & eliminated?
**Urine forms throughout the nephrons and collecting ducts, and then follows this pathway to the outside of the body**:
* Through openings in renal papillae
* Drains into minor calyces
* Drains into larger major calyces
* Drains into renal pelvis
* Follows renal pelvis, which narrows to become ureter
* Transported to urinary bladder for storage
* Leaves body through urethra
114
The Wall of ureter consists of what 3 layers?
Inner **mucous coat** (or mucosa, consists of *transitional epithelium*)
Middle **muscular coat** (or muscularis)
Outer **fibrous coat** (or adventitia)
115
How does the urethra of a male differ from that of a female?
**Female urethra:**
* About 4 cm long
* External urethral orifice is anterior to vaginal opening
**Male urethra:**
* About 19.5 cm long
* Has a *dual function for both urination and reproduction*
* Has 3 sections: *Prostatic urethra, Membranous urethra, & Spongy urethra* (terminates at external urethral orifice in penis)
116
**Expulsion of urine from the urinary bladder**
* Urine leaves urinary bladder by **micturition reflex**
*Occurs through reflex contraction of detrusor muscle and reflex relaxation of internal urethral sphincter*
*Requires relaxation of external urethral sphincter (voluntary)*
**Controlled by micturition reflex center in sacral spinal cord**
**Problems with micturition:**
*Incontinence:* Inability to control micturition
*Nocturnal enuresis:* Bedwetting
Micturition (urination)
117
Consists of various fluids in different spaces and vessels
* **Interstitial fluid:** in tissue spaces.
* **Blood plasma:** in blood vessels.
* **Lymph:** in lymphatic vessels.
* **Transcellular fluid:** Separated from other extracellular fluids by epithelial layers; *consists of cerebrospinal fluid, aqueous and vitreous humors in eye, synovial fluid in joints, serous fluid*
**Have high concentrations of Na, Cl, Ca, & HCO3**
Extracellular Fluid Compartment
118
Define the efollowing blood vessels w/in the nephrons:
Afferent arteriole
Glomerulus
Efferent arteriole
Peritubular capillaries
**Afferent arteriole:** Branch off cortical radiate arteries; each enters a different nephron
**Glomerulus:** Capillary cluster that branches from afferent arteriole; filters blood in each nephron
**Efferent arteriole:** Arises from merging of glomerular capillaries
**Peritubular capillaries:** Branches off the efferent arteriole; surrounds renal tubules
119
The renal corpuscle consists of _ & a _.
A) Glomerulus ; Glomerular capsule (Bowmans)
B) Proximal tubule ; Distal tubule
C) Afferent arteriole ; Efferent arteriole
A) Glomerulus ; Glomerular capsule (Bowmans)
120
Extracellular fluids are similar in composition, having high concentractions of......
Na+
Cl-
Ca+
HCO3-
121
Intracellular fluids have high concentractions of....
*K*+
*Mg*+2
*PO*-3
*SO*4-2
122
exists when water intake (and metabolic production) equals water output.
**Homeostasis requires control of both water intake and water output.**
**Water intake is controlled by the thirst centers in the brain.**
*Water output is controlled by the kidneys.*
Water balance
123
Activity in the _ causes a person to feel thirsty & to seek water.
A) Thalamus
B) Hypothalamus
C) Medulla
D) Pon
B) Hypothalamus
124
In what ways can water be excreated?
Urine (60%)
Feces (6%)
Sweat or sensible perspiration (6%)
Through combination of evaporation from the skin & lungs during breathing (28%)
* Insensible perspiration)
125
What are the most important electrolytes for cellular functions?
Na
K
Ca
Mg
Cl
SO
PO
HCO3
H
126
Which mechanisms ordinarily regulate electrolyte intake?
Foods
Fluids
Metabolic reactions
127
By what routes does the body lose electrolytes?
Perspiration
Feces
Urine
128
How does aldosterone regulate the sodium and potassium ion concentrations?
High K concentration stimulates secretion of aldosterone, which increases tubular reabsorption of Na & tubular secretion of K
129
electrolytes that ionize in water and release hydrogen ions
The more acidic the solution, the lower its p H.
**Strong acids** ionize more completely and release more H+
* Example: H C l in gastric juice.
**Weak acids** ionize less completely and release fewer H+
* Example: H2CO3 , produced when CO2 combines with H2O.
Acids
130
substances which release ions that combine with hydrogen ions
Acid-base balance involves regulation of the H ion concentrations
The more basic/alkaline the solution, the higher its p H
**Strong bases** ionize more completely and release more OH- or other negative ions
* Example: NaOH (sodium hydroxide).
**Weak bases** ionize less completely and release fewer OH- or other negative ions.
* Examples: Na HCO3 (sodium bicarbonate), HCO3 can act as base.
Base
131
*Found in intracellular and extracellular fluids*.
**Important in intracellular fluid, renal tubular fluid, urine**.
**The monohydrogen phosphate ion***converts a strong acid to a weak acid.*
**The dihydrogen phosphate ion** *converts a strong base to a weak base.*
Phosphate buffer system
132
How do the kidneys respond to excess hydrogen ions?
Regulate H+ ion concentration of body fluids by excreting H+ ions in the urine
Kidneys compensate for extra acidity by increasing tubular secretion of H+ ions, & increased excretion in the urine
133
results from the
**accumulation of acids or
loss of bases**, both of which
cause abnormal increases in the H+ ion concentration in body fluids, and **lower the pH
below 7.35.**
Acidosis
134
results from a
**loss of acids or an
accumulation of bases
accompanied by a decrease in H+** ion concentration, which increases the **pH above 7.45.**
Alkalosis
135
What is the difference between Resp. Acidosis & Metabolic Acidosis?
**Resp. Acidosis:** Caused by increase in CO2 and H2CO3 levels
* Obstrucion of airway
* Decreased gas exchange
**Metabolic Acidosis:** Caused by accumulation of other acids or loss of bases
* Kidney failure
* Ketones / DM
* Prolonged diarrhea & vomitting
136
T/F: Renin is secreted by the juxtaglomerular apparatua regulates the renin angiotensis system, which increases BP
True
137
What is the difference between Resp. Alkalosis & Metabolic Alkalosis?
**Resp. Alkalosis:** caused by excess loss of CO2 and HCO3.
* *Hyperventilation (Fever, anxiety, poisoning, high altitude)*
* Excessive loss of CO2
* Decreased HCO3 & H
**Metabolic Alkalosis:** results from excess loss of H+ ions or gain in bases
* Gastric drainage
* Vomiting w/ loss of gastric secretion
* Diuretics
138
Bodys maintenance of stable internal enviornment
* Requires most of our metabolic energy
**Receptors:** Provides information
**Control center:** Tells what particular value should be
**Effectors:** Cause responses to change to internal enviornment
Homeostasis
139
**Most common homeostatic mech**
Effectors return conditions toward normal range
* **Maintains balance**
* Prevent severe changes in the body
* Long lived
**Ex:**
* BP
* T
* Glucose (Insulin)
Negative feedback loop
140
Divides body into 4 parts (head, neck, trunk, & upper appendicular portion)
* **Cranial cavity**: Houses brain
* **Vertebral cranial**: Spinal cavity/cord, backbone/vertebra
* **Thoracic cavity**: Heart, lungs and pleura
* **Abdominopelvic cavity**: All of your organs other than your brain, heart, and lungs
Axial portion
141
Seperated from abdominopelvic by **diaphragm**
* Broad thin muscle
At *rest*, *muscle is curved upwards* into thorax (like dome) ; when *contracting during inhalation*, *muscle curves down* on abdominal viscera
**Includes**:
* *L pleural cavity*: Line thoracic cavity & cover lungs
* *Mediastinum*
* *R pleural cavity*: Line thoracic cavity & cover lungs
* *Pericardial cavity*: Surrounding heart & covering surface
Thoracic cavity
142
*Extends forward to the sternum & backward to the vertebral column*
Forms boundry between R & L sides of thoracic cavity
* R & L lungs are on either side
Includes:
* Heart
* Esophagus
* Trachea
* Thymus
Mediastinum
143
Includes upper abdominal & lower pelvic portion
**Abdominal cavity**:
* **Viscera** found within (**stomach, liver, spleen, gallbladder, kidneys, small/large intestine**)
**Pelvic cavity**:
* Portion enclosed by pelvic bones
* **Contains terminal end of large intestine, urinary bladder, & internal reproductive organs**
Abdominopelvic Cavity
144
What’s the difference between parietal & visceral peritoneum?
**Parietal peritoneum**: Lines the wall of the abdominal pelvic cavity
**Visceral peritoneum**: Covers most organs in the abdominopelvic cavity
145
Define the following *positions*:
Superior
Inferior
Anterior/Ventral
Posterior/Dorsal
Medial
Lateral
Bilateral
Ipsilateral
Contralateral
Proxial
Distal
Superficial
Deep
**Superior**: Above
**Inferior**: Below
**Anterior/Ventral**: Toward front
**Posterior/Dorsal**: Toward back
**Medial**: Toward midline
**Lateral**: Away from midline
**Bilateral**: Paired structures on both sides
**Ipsilateral**: Same side
**Contralateral**: Opposite sides
**Proxial**: Close to trunk
**Distal**: Away from trunk
**Superficial**: Close to body surface
**Deep**: More internal
146
**Define each body section/ plane:**
Sagittal section:
Midsagittal /median:
Coronal / frontol section:
**Sagittal section**: Longituted cut diving body into L & R portions
**Midsagittal /median**: Divides body into L & R
**Coronal / frontol section**: Longitudinal cut that divides body into anterior & porterior portions
147
Positively charged ion
Formed when atom loses electrons
Attract anions to create a 3D structure
Cation
148
Negatively charged ion
Formed when atoms gains electrons
Attract cations to create a 3D structure
Anion
149
Strong chemical bonds formed when ions of opposite charge attract
* Between cation & anion
* *Dissociation in water*
* **Lose/gain electrons**
*3 steps*:
1. Transfer of an electron to form ion
2. Positive & negative ions are attracted to each other
3. Formation of bond
*Example: NaCl*
Ionic bond
150
Chemical bond formed between atoms that **shared electrons**
* Strong chemical bonds
* *Can be polar/nonpolar*
*Examples*:
* Hydrogen (H) can combine to create a molecule = (H2)
* Hydrogen molecule (H2) often combines w/ oxygen (O2) molecule = H2O
* CO2
Covelent bond
151
Atoms share electrons equally
Exist between atoms of the same element
Attraction to electrons is based on the size of the nucleus (**electronegativity**)
* The bigger the nucleus, the more electronegative an atom is
* Atoms of same size have same size nucleus & need equal "pull" of electrons
C & H atoms also form
Examples found in carbon dioxide & most carbon-hydrogen bonds
Nonpolar covalent bonds
152
Electrons are not shared equally
* *More electrons are on one end of the molecule making that end slightly negative, while the other end is slightly positive*
Usually form where hydrogen atoms bond to & oxygen to nitrogen atoms
*Example*: Water (H2O)
Polar covalent bonds
153
What has control over blood pH?
Bicarb (HCO3)
154
What are the 2 forms of endoplasmic reticulum?
**Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum (SER):**
* No ribosomes attached and makes glycogen (polysaccharides), phospholipids, and steroids
**Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER):**
* Has ribosomes attached and modifies proteins given by ribosomes (little red dots)
155
Puts finishing touches on proteins, *packages the protein into the vesicles, and ships the protein filled vesicles towards the plasma membrane and out of the cell* (exocytosis)
Stacks of flattened membraneous sacs
Think of UPS/ FEDEX/ Amazon
Golgi apparatus
156
Powerhouse of the cell
Requires oxygen and uses it to burn glycose into **ATP (comes from Glycolisis)**
Mitochondria
157
cell organelle filled with enzymes needed to break down and dispose of debris, old organelles, and bacteria that has been ingested (endocytosis)
Think of garbage disposal
Lysosomes
158
Provides structure and movement for the cell
Forms structures that undergo Mitosis
Translates to "skeleton of the cell"
Cytoskeleton
159
Outer body of cell
Maintains integrity of cell
Regulates entry/exit of substances
* **Selectively permeable**
Consits mainly of lipids & protein w/ some carbs
Framework is phospholipid bilayer
* **Water-soluble:** Heads form surface
* **Water-insoluble:** Tails form interior
* Permable to lipid-soluble substances
Cell (plasma) membrane
160
**Have nucles** in cell
Some are larger & multicellular (human like)
Some are like amebas
Some can be pathogens
**Ex:**
* Fungi
* Protozoan
* Parasitic worms (plant/animal)
Eukaryotic organisms
161
Single cell organism
**Lack nucleus**
**Ex**: Bacteria
Prokaryotic organisms
162
Consists of networks of membranes & organelles suspended in cytosol
Cytosol + Organelles
* *Cytosol*: Fluid protion of cytoplams
* *Organelles*: Tiny solid structures w/ specific functions in the cell
Contain *cytoskeleton*
* supporting framework of protien rods & tubules
Cytoplasm
163
Do not require ATP
* Diffusion
* Osmosis
* Facillitated diffusion
* Filtration
Physical (passive) Process
164
Require ATP
* Active transport
* Endocytosis
* Exocytosis
* Transcytosis
Physiological (Active) Process
165
Movement of substances from region of low concentration to high concentration (against gradient)
* **Acitve process - ATP required**
Uses carrier molecules in cell membrane
Ex:
* Sugars
* Amino acids
* Ca 2+
* H+
* **Na+ / K+ pump**
Active transport
166
**Cell grows & replicates genetic materia (DNA) to prepare for mitosis (Nuclear division)**
Cell synthesizes organelles, membranes,
& biochemicals to prepare for cytokinesis (Division of cytoplams)
Phases:
* **G1**: Cell growth, prepares for DNA replication
* **S (synthesis)**: DNA replicated
* **G2**: Cell prepares for mitosis & cytokinesis
Interphase
167
What are the major events in mitosis?
**Prophase**: Chromatin condenses into chromosomes; centrioles move to opposite sides of cytoplasm to form spindle; nuclear emebrane & nucleolus disperse
**Metaphase**: Chromosomes align midway between centrioles. Spindle fibers from the centrioles attach to the centromeres of the sister chromosome
**Anaphase**: Centromeres separate, & sister chromatids move apart, w/ each chromatid now an individual chromosomes ; spindle fibers shorten & pull these new individual chromosomes toward centrioles
**Telophase**: Chromosomes elongate & from chromatin threads; nuclear membranes form around each chromosome set; nucleoli form; microtubules break down
168
**Function:**
* Protection
* Secretion
* Absorption
* Excretion
**Location:**
* Covers body surface
* Cover & line internal organs
* Compose glands
**Distinguishing characteristics:**
* **Lack blood vessels**, cell readily divide, **cells are tightly packed.** injuries heal rapidly
**Shapes**:
* **Squamous** (*flat*) * **cuboidal** (*cube-shaped*)
* **columnar** (*tall*)
**Layers**:
* **Simple** (*1 layer*)
* **Stratified** (*2+ layers*)
* **pseudostratified** (*Looks layered but isnt*)
Epithelial tissue
169
**Functions:**
* Binds, support, protect
* Fill spaces, store fat, produce blood cells
**Location:**
* Widely distributed throughout the body
**Distinguishing characteristics:**
* Mostly have good blood supply
* Cells are farther apart than epithelial cells
* Extracellular matrix inbetween
Connective Tissue
170
composed of cells that produce & secrete substances into ducts or body fluids
2 types of glands:
**Endocrine**: Secrete into tissue fluid / blood
**Exocrine**: Secretes into ducts that open onto surface
Glandular epithelium
171
**Functions:**
* Movement
**Location:**
* Attached to bone
* In walls of hollow internal organs
* Heart
**Distinguishing characteristics:**
* Able to contracts in response to specific stimuli
Muscle tissue
172
What are the 3 major types of connective tissue?
**Fibroblast**:
* Most common fixed cell
* Large star-shaped cell
* Secrete fibers into extracellular matrix
**Macrophages (Histiocytes)**:
* Usually attached to fibers, but can detach & wander
* Conduct phagocytosis
* Defend against infections
**Mast Cells**:
* Large cells, located near blood vessels
* **Release heparin** to prevent blood clotting
* **Release histamine**, which causes an inflammatory response
173
**Functions:**
* conduct impulses for coordination, regulation, integration, & sensory reception
* Release of neurotransmitters,, & regulate body functions
*
**Location:**
* Brain
* Spinal cord
* Nerves
**Distinguishing characteristics:**
* Cells communicate w/ each other & other body parts
Cells w/ cytoplasmic extensions
* *Neuroglia* support and nourish neurons
Nervous Tissue
174
Closely packed collagenous fibers
Fine network of elastic fibers
Most cells are fibroblasts
Very strong, withstands pulling
Binds body parts together
Tendons, ligaments, dermis
**Poor blood supply**; slow to heal
Dense **regular connective tissues**
175
Randmoly organized, thick, interwoven collagenous fibers
Can withstand tension exerted from dfferent directions
Dermis of skin
Around skeletal muscles
Dense **Irregular connective tissue**
176
Line body cavities that do not open to outside of body
Inner linning of thorax & abdomen; covers groin
Simple squamous epithelium + areolar connective tissue
Secrete serous fluid for lubrication, reducing friction
Serous membrane
177
Shorter cells, single, central nucleus, **Non-striated**
* Contains spindle-shaped fibers
Function: Involuntary movement internal organs
Location: Walls of hallow internal organs
Smooth muscle tissue
178
The skin contains what 2 tissues?
Epithelial & Connective tissue
179
What is the difference between the epidermis & dermis of the skin?
**Epidermis:**
* Outer layer
* Stratified squamous epithelium
* Basement membrane between epidermis & dermis
* Contains Keratin
**Dermis:**
* Inner layer
* Thicker of the 2 layers
* Connective tissue
* Contains collagenous & elasric fibers
180
Beneath dermis ; insulating layer
Areolar & adipose connective tisue
Not considered part of the skin
Contans blood vessels that supply skin
Subcutaneous layer (hypodermis)
181
Located in stratum basale
Melanoma arises
**Produce dark pigment melanin**
Absorbs UV light from sunlight & provides skin color
* **causes melanocytes to produce more melanin, and skin darkens**
* **overwhelms body’s natural protective responses against skin cancer**
Distributed into keratinocytes, to protect skin cells from damaging effects of UV light
* DNA damage
* Fibroblast damage
* Skin cancer
Melanocytes
182
What are the 3 factors affecting skin color?
***Hereditay factors:***
* All people have **same number of melanocytes, but vary in amount of melanin** produced (genetic control)
* Varying distribution and size of melanin granules.
* **Albinos** inherit mutation in melanin genes; **lack melanin**
***Environmental Factors:***
* Sunlight.
* UV light from sunlamps/ tanning beds
* X-rays.
***Physiological Factors:***
* Oxygenation in blood of dermal blood vessels: pinkish, cyanosis.
* *Vasodilation/vasoconstriction* of dermal blood vessels.
* Accumulation of carotene pigment from diet.
* *Jaundice*.
183
**Inner layer of skin** that contains dermal papillae between epidermal ridges
* Binds epidermia to underlying tissue
Connective tissue layer that conatines fibers, hair follicles, sweat glands, sebaceous glands,& nerve processes
Sensory receptors:
* **Lamellated (*Pacinian*)**: Corpuscles for pressure
* **Tactile (*Meissner's*)**: Corpuscles for light touch
Dermis
184
The dermis consists of what 2 layers?
**Papillary layer:**
* Superficial layer.
* Areolar connective tissue.
* Thinner of the 2 layers.
* Location of dermal papillae.
**Reticular layer:**
* Deeper layer.
* Dense irregular connective tissue.
* Thicker of 2 layers.
185
What is the function of skin?
Versatile, and vital for homeostasis.
Protective covering, barrier against harmful substances and microorganisms
Prevents some water loss & contains sensory receptors.
Excretes some wastes.
Helps produce Vitamin & regulate body temperature
186
T/F: Body temp is monitored by Hypothalamus
true
187
Which 3 active body cells are major heat producers?
skeletal muscle
cardiac muscle
cells of the liver
188
What are the 2 types of Metabolic reactions?
**Anabolism**: small molecules are built into larger ones; *requires energy*
**Catabolism**: larger molecules are broken down into smaller ones, *releases energy*
189
Provides materials for maintenance, cellular growth and repair. Requires ATP made during catabolism
* Example: Dehydration synthesis
Smaller molecules are bound together to form larger ones.
H2O produced in the process.
Used to produce polysaccharides, proteins, triglycerides
Anabolism
190
Breaks down larger molecules into smaller ones; ATP is produced
* Example: Hydrolysis
Used to decompose carbohydrates, proteins, lipids.
Uses H2O to split the substances.
Reverse of dehydration synthesis.
Catabolism
191
**Sensory** nerve only
**Associated with sense of smell**
**Bipolar neurons**; pass through cribriform plate of ethmoid bone, and enter olfactory bulbs
Olfactory nerve I (1)
192
**Sensory** nerve only
**Associated with sense of vision**
Neuron cell bodies form ganglion layers of retina, and pass through optic foramina of the orbits.
Optic nerve II (2)
193
**Primary motor** nerve
**Monitor impulses to several voluntary muscles that rise eyelids, & move the eye**
Motor impulses to involuntary muscles that focus the lens, & *adjust the light entering your eye (Part of autonomic nervous system)*
Small sensory component **(Proprioceptive fibers)**
Oculomotor nerve III (3)
194
**Primary motor** nerve
Smallest pair of cranial nerves
**Motor impulses to one pair of muscles that move the eyes**
Small sensory component **(Proprioceptive fibers)**
Trochlear nerve IV (4)
195
**Mixed** nerve
Largest part of sensory branches
*3 large sensory branches:*
1. **Opthalmic division**: Sensory from surface of eyes, tear glands, scalp, forhead, & upper eyelids
2. **Maxillary division**: Sensory from upper teeth, upper gum, upper lip, palate, & skin on the face
3. **Mandibular division**: Sensory from scalp, skin of jaw, lower teeth, lower gums, lower lip, & *muscles of mastication (Chewing)*
Trigeminal nerve V (5)
196
**Primary motor** nerve
**Motor impulses to one pair of muscles that move the eyes**
Some sensory **(Proprioceptive fibers)**
Abducens nerve VI (6)
197
**Mixed** nerve
Special sensory from **taste receptors**
Somatic motor to muscles of **facial expression**
Autonomic motor to **tear glands, & salivary glands**
Facial nerve VII (7)
198
**Sensory** nerve only
Acoustic or auditory nerve
2 branches:
* **Vestibular branch**: Sensory form **equilibrium** receptors of the ear
* **Cochlear branch**: Sensory from **hearing** receptors
Vestibulocochlear nerve VIII (8)
199
**Mixed** nerve
Sensory from **pharynx, tonsils, part of tongue (posterior third), carotid arteries**
Motor to **salivary glands (autonomic) & muscles o pharynx (for swallowing, somatic)**
Glossopharyngeal nerve IX (9)
200
**Mixed** nerve
Somatic motor to **muscles of speech & swallowing**
Autonomic motor to **heart, & other viscera of the thorax & abdomen**
Sensory from **pharynx, larynx, esophagus, & viscera of thorax & abdomen**
Vagus nerve X (10)
201
**Primary** motor nerve
Aka "Spinal accessory"
Contain crainal & spinal branches
* **Cranial branch:** *Motor to muscles of soft palate, pharynx, & larynx ; Join Vagus N*
* **Spinal branch**: *Motor to muscles of neck & back ; Small sensory component (proprioceptive fibers)*
Accessory nerve XI (11)
202
**Primary** motor
Motor to muscles of **tongue**
Small sensory component **(Proprioceptive fibers)**
Hypoglossal nerve XII (12)
203
T/F: Nerves are bundles of axons
True
204
What are the *3 connective tissue coverings* located on the structures of periphreal nerves?
**Endoeurium**: Around each axon *(Outside Myelin Sheath)*
**Perineurium**: Around fascicles *(Bundle of axons)*
**Epineurium**: Around whole nerve
205
What are the 4 major parts of the brain?
Cerebrum
Dienecphalon
Cerebellum
Brainstem
206
what are the 3 ventricles in the brain?
**Forebrain (Prosencephalon)**: Divides brain into telenecephalon & diencephalon
**Midbrain (Mesencephalon)**
**Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon)**: Divides into metencephalon & myelencephalon
207
What 3 structures make up the brainstem?
Midbrain
Pons
Medulla Oblongata
208
Association areas Carry on higher intellectual process for:
* Concentrating
* Planning
* Complex problem solving
* Emotional behavior, jusging consequences of behavior
**Motor** areas control movements of voluntary skeletal muscles
Frontal lobe
209
**Sensory areasare responsible for hearing & interpret complex sensory experiences (understanding speech, & reading)**
* *Auditory*
Associated areas interpret sensory experiences & remember visual scense, music, & other complex sensory patterns
Temporal lobe
210
**Sensory areas provide sensations of temperature, touch, pressure, & pain involving the skin**
Association areas function in understanding speech & using words to express thoughts & feelings
Part of lobe associated w/:
* Understanding speech
* Choosing words to express thoughts & feelings
Parietal lobe
211
Sensory areas are responsible for vision
Association areas combine **visual** images w/ other sensory experiences
Part of lobe associated w/ *analyzing & combining viual images w/ other sensory experiences*
Occipital lobe
212
Translating sensory information into proper emotional response
Insula
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What is the difference between a Dominant Hemisphere & a Nondominant Hemisphere?
**Dominant Hemisphere:**
* Language skills of speech, writing, & reading
* Verbal, analytical, & computational skills
**Nondominant Hemisphere:**
* Nonverbal tasks
* Motor tasks
* Understanding & interpreting musical & visual patterns
* Provides emotional & intuitive thought process
214
What are 5 neuron structures?
**Dendrites**: Receive signals
**Cell body**: Manufacture cell components, & intergrate signal
**Axon**: Conduct impulses
**Synaptic Knob**: Site of contract w/ target cell
**Myelin Sheath**: Formed by neuroglia cells to insulate axons ; Interrruped in Periheral neurons by nodes
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What is the difference between a Bipolar Neuron & an Unipolar neuron?
**Bipolar Neuron:**
* 2 processes
* Eyes, ears, nose *(special senses)*
**Unipolar neuron:**
* 1 process
* Cell bodies are in ganglia
* *Sensory neuron*
* Dendrites fuse w/ Axons
* *Special senses*
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What is the difference between the following neurons:
Sensory neurons
Interneurons
Motor Neurons
**Sensory neurons:**
* **Afferent neurons**
* Carry impulses to CNS
* Most are **unipolar**
* Some are bipolar
**Interneurons:**
* Association Neurons
* **Link sensory & motor neurons**
* Multipolar
* Located in CNS
**Motor Neurons:**
* **Multipolar, efferent**
* Carry impulses away from CNS
* Carry impulses to effectors
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**Connect neurons to blood vessel**
* Exchange nutrients & growth factors
**Acts as filter for brain**
Form scar tissue
Aid metabolism of certain substances
**Regulates K+**
Part of Blood Brain Barrier
**Astrocytes** (Neuroglia of CNS)
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Phagocytic cell
Provides structural support
**Microglia** (Neuroglia of CNS)
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**Line central canal to spinal cord & ventricles of brain**
* *Cover choroid plexuses*
Help regulate composition & circulation of cerebrospinal fluid
Cuboidal or columnar cells; ciliated
**Ependyma / Ependymal cells** (Neuroglia of CNS)
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**PNS neuroglia that encase axons in a sheath**
Speed up speed of nerve impulse transmission
Wrap tightly around axon in layers **composed of myelin** *(Lipoprotein mixtures)*
* *Coating called Myelin Sheath*
**Node of Ranvier:** Gaps in Myelin Sheath between Schwann cells
Schwann Cells
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If peripheral axon is injured, it may regenerate
Axon separated from cell body and its myelin sheath will degenerate
Schwann cells and neurilemma remain
Remaining Schwann cells provide guiding sheath for growing axon
If growing axon establishes former connection, function will return; if not, function may be lost.
Neuron Regeneration in the *PNS*
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CNS axons lack neurilemma to act as guiding sheath.
Oligodendrocytes do not proliferate after injury.
Regeneration is unlikely
Neuron Regeneration in the*CNS*
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Propagated down the length of the axon as *nerve impulses*
***Axon hillock / Initial segment / Trigger zone* at first part of axon contains many voltage-gated sodium channels**
When **threshold is reached (-55 mV), voltage-gated *Na+ channels open*** (Beginning of the action potential)
***Na+* ions diffuse into the cell, and membrane *depolarizes (Toward 0)***
Na+ channels close and K+ channels open
**K+ diffuses out of the cell, and membrane *repolarizes (Toward -70)***
The **voltage goes a below -70 mV**, so the membrane is **temporarily *hyperpolarized (-90)***
Then K+ channels close
Na+/K+ pumps bring the membrane back to **RMP (-70 mV)**
Action Potentials
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What is the difference between Myelinated & Unmyelinated axons?
**Myelinated axons:**
* *PNS* have a series of Schwann cells lined up along the axon, each having a wrapped coating of myelin insulating the axon
**Unmyelinated axons:**
* Encased by Schwann cell cytoplasm, but there is no wrapped coating of myelin surrounding the axons.
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Where are neurotransmitters produced?
Rough ER or cytoplasm
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Neurotransmitters are released by ____________.
A) Endocytosis
B) Exocytosis
B) Exocytosis
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Membranes that protect brain & spinal cord
Consists of 3 layers:
* *Dura mater* (Outer layer)
* *Arachnoid mater* (middle layer ; weblike)
* *Pia mater* (Inner layer attached to spinal cord)
Meningies
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Describe the 3 layers of the meningies:
**Dura Mater:**
* Outer layer of meningies
* Tough, dense connective tissue
* Dural sinuses
* Epidural space
**Arachnoid mater:**
* Middle layer ; web-like
* Subarachnoid space contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
**Pia mater:**
* Inner layer ; attached to surface of brain & spinal cord
* Blood vessels & nerves
* Nourishes CNS
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Thin layer of **gray matter**
Makes up outermost layer of the cerebrum
Interpretes impules from sensory organs
* Creating sensations
* Forming perceptions
Initiating voluntary movements
Storing information as memory
* Retrieving stored info
Reasoning, seat of intelligence & personality
Cerebral Cortex
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**Lies deep to the cerebral cortex**
Makes up most of cerebrum
Contains bundles of myelinated axons
**White matter** of cerebrum
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What are the 6 *sensory areas* of the cortex?
**Cutaneous Sensory Area:**
* Parietal Lobe
* Interprets sensations on skin
**Sensory Speech Area (*Wernicke's Area*):**
* Temporal / parietal lobe
* Usually left hemisphere
* Understanding & formulating language
**Visual Area:**
* Occipital Lobe
* Interprets vision
**Auditory Area:**
* Temporal lobe
* Interprets hearing
**Sensory Area for Taste:**
* Near base of the central sulcus
* Includes part of insula
**Sensory Area for Smell:**
* Arise from centers on the deep side of temporal lobes
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What are the *motor areas* of the cortex?
**Primary motor areas:**
* Frontal lobes
* Control voluntary muscles
* Most nerve fibers cross over in brainstem
**Brocas area:**
* Anterior to primary motor cortex
* Usually in left hemisphere
* Controls muscles needed for speech
**Frontal eye field:**
* Above Brocas area
* Controls voluntary movements of eyes & eyelids
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*Between cerebral hemispheres & above the brainstem*
*Surrounds the 3rd ventricle*
**Composed of gray matter**
Contains:
* **Thalamus / Hypothalamus**
* Posterior pituitary
* Pineal gland
Diencephalon
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Maintain homeostasis by regulating visceral activities:
* HR, BP, temp
* Water, electrolytes
* Hunger, body weight, movement
* Glandular secretions (digestive tract)
* Pituitary gland function
* Sleep & wakefulness
Links nervous & endocrine systems
Hypothlamus
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Lies between diencephalon & pons
Contains bundles of fibers that join lower parts of brainstem & spinal cord w/ higher part of the brain
Cerebral aqueduct
Midbrain
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Rounded bulge on underside of brainstem
* Between midbrain & medulla oblongata
*Relays nerve impulses between medulla oblongata & cerebrum*
Relays impulses from cerebrum to cerebellum
**Helps regulate rhythm of breathing**
Pons
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Enlarged continuation of spinal cord
**Conducts ascending & descending impulses between brain & spinal cord**
**Contains cardiac, vasomotor, & respiratory control centers**
Contains various nonvital reflex control centers (Coughing, sneezing, swallowing, & vomiting)
Injuries are fatal
Medulla Oblongata
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**Inferior to occpitial lobes ; Dorsal to pons & medulla oblongata ; posterior to brain**
*Cerebellar cortex (Gray matter)*
**Arbor Vitae (White mater)**
**Integrates sensory information concerning position of body parts**
**Coordinates skeletal muscle activity, maintains posture**
Cerebellum
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Consists of nerves that connect CNS to other body parts
Includes:
* **Cranial Nerves**: Arising from the brain
* **Spinal Nerves:**Arising from the spinal cord
Divided into 2 parts:
* **Somatic Nervous System:** Cranial & spinal nerves that connect CNS to the skill & skeletal muscles (Consciois activites)
* **Autonomic Nervous System:** Cranial & spinal nerves that connect CNS to viscera (Subconscious activities)
Peripheral Nervous System
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Whats the difference between Anterior (ventral) Root & Posterior (dorsal) root
**Anterior (ventral) Root:** *Motor root*
* Cell bodies found in gray matter of spinal cord
**Posterior (dorsal) root:** *Sensory root*
* Posterior root ganglion: Contains cell bodies of sensory neurons
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*Complex network formed by anterior rami (branches) of spinal nerves*
*Not in T2-T12, instead anterior rami become intercostal nerves*
Fibers of various spinal nerves are sorted & recombined, so all fibers heading to same peripheral body part reach in the same nerve
**3 Nerve Plexuses:** Cervival, brachial, lumbosacral
Nerve Plexus
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**Formed by anterior rami (branches) of C1-C4 spinal nerves**
Lies deep in the neck
Supply muscles & skin of the neck
*C3-C5 nerve roots contribute to* **phrenic nerves**, which transmt motor impulses to the diaphragm
Cervical Plexus
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Formed by anterior branches C5-T1
Lies deep w/in shoulders
5 branches:
* **Musculocutaneous Nerve:** Supply muscles of anterior arms & skin of forearms
* **Ulnar & Median Nerve:** Supply muscles of forearms & hands, skin of hands
* **Radial Nerve:** Supply posterior muscles of arm & skin of forearms & hands
* **Axillary Nerve:** Supply muscles & skin of anterior, lateral, & posterior arms
Brachial Plexus
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**Formed by the anterior branches of L1-S4 roots**
Lumbar portions are in lumbar regions of the abdomen, & the sacral portions are in pelvic cavity
**Obturator Nerve:** Supply motor impulses to adductors of thighs
**Femoral Nerve:** Supply motor impulses to muscls of anterior thigh & sensory impulses from skin of thighs & legs
**Sciatic Nerve:** Supply muscles & skin of thighs, legs & feet; largest/longest nerve in body
Lumbosacral Plexus
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Part of PNS
Functions w/o conscious effort
Controls visceral activities
**Regulates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, & glands**
**Helps maintain homeostasis & helps body respond to stress**
Prepares body for exercise, intense physical activity
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
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What are 2 divisions of Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)?
**Sympathetic Division:**
* Prepares body for "fight or flight" situations ; speeds body up
* Most active under energy-requiring, stressful, emergency situations
**Parasympathetic Division:**
* Prepares body for "resting & digesting" activities ; slows body down
* Most active under resting, nonstressful conditions
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Autonomic motor pathway contains what 2 neurons?
**Preganglionic Fibers:**
* Axons of preganglionic neurons
* Neuron cell bodies are in CNS
**Postganglionic Fibers:**
* Axons of postganglionic neurons
* Neuron cell bodies in ganglia
* Extend to visceral effector
* Ectends sympathetic ganglia to visceral effector organs
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Thoracolumbar division (T1-L2)
Preganglionic fibers originate in spinal cord, leave via ventral roots & enter **sympathetic chain (paracertebral) ganglia**
* Send distance from viscera (regulate)
Sympathetic chain ganglia + fibers that connect them make up **sympathetic trunk**
*Ex: Collateral ganglia in abdomen lie close to some large blood vessels*
Sympathetic Division
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What are 2 types of autoniomic neurotransmitters?
**Cholinergic Neurons:**
* Releases acetylcholine
* Postganglionic parasympathetic fibers
**Adrenergic neurons:**
* Release Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
* Most postganslionic sympathetic fibers
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What are the 5 sensoy receptors in the body?
**Chemoeceptors:** Respond to changes in chemical concentations
* Smell, taste, O2 concentration
**Pain Receptors:** Responds to tissue damage
* Mechanical, electrical, thermal energy
**Thermoreceptors:** Respond to modeate changes in temp
**Mechanoreceptors:** Respond to mechanical foces that distort receptor
* Touch, tension, BP, stretch
**Photoreceptors:** Respond to light
* Eyes
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Cornea + Sclera
**Cornea:**
* Anterior sixth.
* Transparent.
* Helps focus light rays.
* Transmits and refracts light
**Sclera:**
* Posterior five sixths.
* White, opaque.
* Protects eye, attaches muscles.
* Pierced by optic nerve and blood vessels
Outer (fibrous) tunic
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Controls amount of light entering the eye controlling the size of the pupil (hole in the iris).
* located in front of lens.
Consists of connective tissue and smooth muscle (colored portion of eye).
Anterior to ciliary body.
Pigmented.
Iris
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**Consists of retina**
* *Retina contains visual receptors (photoreceptors)*
Continuous with optic nerve in back of eye & ends just behind margin of the ciliary body toward front of eye
Composed of several layers.
* **Macula lutea:** yellowish spot in retina.
* **Fovea centralis:** center of macula lutea; produces sharpest vision.
* **Optic disc:** blind spot; contains no photoreceptors; found where nerve fibers from retina leave eye to become optic nerve.
* **Vitreous humor:** thick gel that holds retina flat against choroid coat, and helps maintain the eye’s shape.
Inner (Nervous) Tunic
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What ae the 3 layes of the eye?
**Outer layer:**
* *Posteior porition:* Sclera
* *Function:* Protecion
* *Anterior portion:* Cornea
* *Function:* Light transmission & refaction
**Middle layer:**
* *Posteior porition:* Choroid coat
* *Function:* Blood supply, pigment prevents reflection
* *Anterior portion:* Ciliary body, iris
* *Function:* Accomidation, contols light intensity
**Inner layer:**
* *Posteior porition:* Retina
* *Function:* Photoreception, impulse conduction
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Long, thin projections.
*Contain light sensitive pigment, called rhodopsin*
Hundreds of times more sensitive to light than cones.
**Provide vision in dim light**
**Produce vision without color in shades of gray**
*Produce outlines of objects*
Named for shape of receptive ends: *Cylindrical*
Rods
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Short, blunt projections
*Contain light sensitive pigments, called erythrolabe, chlorolabe, and cyanolabe*
**Provide vision in bright light**
*Produce sharp images*
**Produce color vision**
*Fovea centralis contains only cones*
Named for shape of receptive ends: *conical*
**Erythrolabe:** responds to red light.
**Chlorolabe:** responds to green light.
**Cyanolabe:** responds to blue light.
Cones
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Abundant in hairless portions of skin & lips
Detect fine touch & texture
Distinguish between 2 points
*Type of mechanoreceptor associated w/ touch & pressure senses*
Tactile (**Meissner's**) Corpuscles
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What are the 5 primary taste sensations?
**Sweet:** stimulated by carbohydrates.
**Sour:** stimulated by acids (H+)
**Salty:** stimulated by salts (Na+ or K+)
**Bitter:** stimulated by many organic compounds, M g and C a salts.
**Umami:** stimulated by some amino acids, MSG.
259
What are the 3 parts of the outer ear?
**Auricle (Pinna):**
* Funnel-shaped
* Collects sounds waves
**External acoustic meatus:**
* S-shaped tube.
* Lined with ceruminous glands.
* Carries sound to tympanic membrane.
* Terminates at tympanic membrane
**Tympanic membrane (Eardrum):**
* Vibrates in response to sound waves
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What are the 5 parts of the middle ear?
**Tympanic cavity:**
* Air-filled space in temporal bone
**Auditory ossicles:**
* 3 tiny bones.
* Vibrate in response to tympanic membrane vibrations; amplify force.
* Malleus, incus and stapes.
* Hammer, anvil and stirrup
**Oval window:**
* Opening in wall of tympanic cavity.
* Stapes vibrates against it to move fluids in inner ear.
**Tympanic Reflex:**
* Muscle contractions that occur during loud sounds, to lessen the transfer of sound vibrations to inner ear, and prevent damage to hearing receptors.
* Muscles involved are *tensor tympani and stapedius*
**Auditory (eustachian) tube:**
* Connects middle ear to throat.
* Helps maintain equal pressure on both sides of tympanic membrane.
* Usually closed by valve-like flaps in throat.
