Exam 1 Flashcards
(225 cards)
1
Q
What is the study of the endocrine system and the diagnosis and treatment of its disorders?
A
*endocrinology
2
Q
What is glands, tissues, and cells that secrete hormones?
A
*endocrine system
3
Q
What system is faster?
A
*nervous system but both are highly specific
4
Q
What is the organs that are traditional sources of hormones?
A
*endocrine glands
5
Q
What is a chemical messenger that are transported by the blood stream and stimulate physiological responses in cells of another tissue or organ, often a considerable distance away?
A
*hormone
6
Q
What are the four principal mechanisms of communication between cells?
A
- gap junction
- neurotransmitters
- paracrines
- hormones
7
Q
What are pores in cell membrane that allow signaling molecules, nutrients, and electrolytes to move from cell to cell?
A
*gap junctions
8
Q
What is released from neurons to travel across synaptic cleft to second cells?
A
*neurotransmitters
9
Q
What is secreted into tissue fluids to affect nearby cells (local neighbors?
A
*paracrines
10
Q
What is a chemical messenger that travels in the blood stream to other tissues and organs?
A
*hormones
11
Q
What is a biochemical (protein or steroid) secreted by a gland in response to changes in fluid chemistry neural, or hormonal control that alters the metabolism of a target cell?
A
*hormone
12
Q
Secretion of hormones can be triggered by? (3)
A
- blood chemistry
- other glands and hormones
- nervous system
13
Q
How are hormones triggered by blood chemistry?
A
*Ca++ levels and PTH
14
Q
If Ca levels go down what happens to PTH levels?
A
*they go up and that targets osteoclasts
15
Q
How are hormones triggered by other glands and hormones?
A
*pituitary and hormones
16
Q
Calcitriol=
A
*hormone D (vitamin D)
17
Q
How are hormones triggered by the nervous system?
A
*epinephrine from the adrenal gand in response to flight or fight (sympathetic input)
18
Q
What are some changes in the metabolism of the target cells? (4)
A
- changes in membrane permeability (gates)
- changes in protein synthesis (DNA)
- changes in cell mitosis (growth)
- changes in protein activation (enzymes)
19
Q
What are the classes of hormones? (3)
A
- amines
- peptides
- steroids (6)
20
Q
What are amines?
A
*derived from single amino acids (norepinephrine)
21
Q
What are 3 or more amino acids?
A
*peptides
22
Q
What are most hormones?
A
*peptides
23
Q
What are derived from cholesterol and are lipid soluble?
A
*steroids
24
Q
What is cholesterol?
A
*water hating, hydrophobic
25
What classes of hormones are proteins, and hydrophilic?
*amines and peptides
26
What hormone cannot penetrate target cells?
*peptide hormones
27
What hormone binds to surface receptors and activates intracellular processes through second messengers?
*peptide hormones
28
What type of hormone penetrates plasma membrane and bind to internal receptors (usually in nucleus)?
*steroid hormone
29
What hormone influences expression of genes of target cells?
*steroid hormones
30
What hormone takes several hours to days to show effect due to lag for protein synthesis?
*steroid hormone
31
Are hormone concentrations in blood high or low?
*low
32
One hormone molecule can activate what?
*many enzyme molecules
33
A very small stimulus can produce what kind of effect?
*a very large effect
34
What hormone does the pineal gland secrete?
*melatonin (protein hormone)
35
What does melatonin target?
*most cells
36
What is the effect of melatonin?
*regulate day and night cycles (trigger daily rhythm)
37
How many hormones does the anterior pituitary gland produce?
*6
38
What hormones are secreted by the anterior pituitary gland?
* prolactin
* follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
* luteinizing hormone (LH)
* growth hormone
* thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
* Adreno-cortico tropic hormone (ACTH)
39
How many hormones does the posterior pituitary release?
*2
40
What hormones are released by the posterior pituitary?
* anti-diuretic hormone
| * oxytocin
41
What is oxytocin for?
* positive feedback
| * child birth (contractions)
42
What hormones does the thyroid gland secrete?
* thyroxine
| * calcitonin
43
What hormones does the parathyroid gland secrete?
*parathyroid hormone (PTH)
44
What is PTH involved in?
*bone metabolism
45
What hormone does the thymus secrete?
*thymosine
46
What is in the adrenal gland?
*cortex and medulla
47
What does the adrenal cortex secrete?
*cortisone, aldosterone, and androgen (sex hormone, estrogen and testosterone)
48
What does the adrenal medulla secrete?
*epinephrine and norepinephrine (adrenaline)
49
What is the adrenal medulla?
*ganglion
50
What does the testes secrete?
*testosterone
51
What does the ovaries secrete?
*estrogen and progesterone
52
What does the pancreas secrete?
*insulin and glucagon
53
What gland is an endocrine and exocrine organ?
*pancreas
54
What does the hypothalamus do?
*monitors blood composition
55
How does the hypothalamus monitor blood composition?
*monitor temperature, blood glucose, and osmolarity
56
What does ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) target?
*kidney
57
What is the response of ADH?
*retain water (decrease urine, water balance, thirst mechanism)
58
What is the trigger of ADH?
*increase or decrease in osmolarity
59
What does oxytocin target?
*smooth muscle of female uterus
60
What is the response of oxytocin?
*contraction of smooth muscle, labor pains (positive feedback mechanism)
61
What is the trigger of oxytocin?
*birth
62
The anterior pituitary releases its product into the what?
*hypothalamus via portal system
63
What is a portal system?
*from capillary to capillary
64
What are the tropic cells that the hypothalamus delivers its product to?
* somatotrope
* gonadotrope
* thyrotrope
* mammotrope
* corticotrope
65
What does the somatotrope release?
*growth hormone
66
What does growth hormone target?
*all cells
67
What is the response of growth hormone?
*increase protein synthesis, increase lipolysis, spare glucose (keep brain happy)
68
What is the trigger of growth hormone?
*body growing (puberty)
69
What does gonadotrope secrete?
*LH and FSH
70
What does LH and FSH target?
*testes and ovaries
71
What is the effect of LH and FSH?
* production of gametes in testes
* effect in overies is maintenance of uterine cycles
* testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone releases
72
What is the trigger for LH and FSH?
*negative feedback (trigger testosterone and estrogen)
73
What does thyrotrope secrete?
*TSH
74
What does TSH target?
*thyroid gland
75
What is the effect of TSH?
*release thyroxine (T3 and T4)
76
What is the trigger of TSH?
*levels of thyrotrope (low)
77
What does mammotrope secrete?
*prolactin (PRL)
78
What does prolactin target?
*mammary glands
79
What is the effect of prolactin?
*milk production
80
What does corticotrope secrete?
*ACTH
81
What does ACTH target?
*adrenal cortex
82
What does ACTH produce?
*cortisone
83
What is cortisone?
* steroid (catabolic steroid, prevents chemical actions from happening)
* death hormone
* made of cholesterol
84
What is the trigger of ACTH?
*negative feedback
85
What is the thymus involved in?
*disease control
86
What does the thymus release?
*thymosine
87
What does thymosine target?
*T lymphocytes (white blood cells for immunity)
88
What is the effect of thymosine?
*mature of lymphocyte (makes it reproduce rapidly)
89
What is the trigger of thymosine?
*disease
90
What does thyroid release?
*T3 and T4 (thyroxine)
91
What does T3 and T4 target?
*all cells
92
What is the effect of T3 and T4?
* increase metabolism and increase growth and development
| * increase enzyme synthesis
93
What is the trigger for the parathyroid?
*increase and decrease Ca levels
94
What does the parathyroid release?
*PTH
95
What does PTH target?
*osteoclasts
96
What is the effect of PTH?
* liquefy bone matrix
| * increase Ca levels
97
What is in the matrix?
*Ca and collagen
98
Adrenal cortex is what?
*glandular
99
What is the trigger for the adrenal cortex?
*ACTH
100
What does the adrenal cortex release?
*releases corticosteriods
101
What does the adrenal cortex target?
*most cells
102
What is the effect of the adrenal cortex?
*increase in glycogenolysis, increase in lipolysis, and decrease in protein synthesis
103
What is an increase in lipolysis?
*free up energy sources, used for healing
104
What is the medulla?
*gangia and glandular
105
What is the trigger for the medulla?
*flight or fight (increase sympathetic stimulation)
106
What does the medulla release?
*epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (from sympathetic)
107
What is the target for the medulla?
*having the sympathetic nervous system turn on hormone
108
What are the two functions of the pancreas?
*endocrine and exocrine
109
What is the trigger for the endocrine function of the pancreas?
*blood glucose levels (increase or decrease)
110
What does the endocrine function release?
*alpha and beta cells
111
What do alpha cells release?
*glucagon
112
What do beta cells release?
* insulin (released when glucose levels are high, facilitates glucose diffusion into cells)
* helps store glucose (glycogenesis)
113
What does glucagon free?
*stored glucose (released when glucose levels are low)
114
What does the exocrine function secrete?
*pancreatic juice (digestive)
115
What is released when glucose levels are low?
*stored glucose
116
What is released when glucose levels are high?
*insulin
117
What is the receptor location for a protein?
*membrane
118
What is the receptor location for a steroid?
*cytosol or nucleus
119
What does the gonads release?
*LH and FSH
120
What does LH and FSH target?
*ovary and testes
121
What is the effect for FSH?
*produce gamete and ovum
122
What does LH cause the release of?
*egg (ovulation)
123
What does FSH increase?
*sperm production
124
What does LH increase?
*testosterone production
125
What is the synthesis and storage of proteins?
*made in advance, stored in vesicles
126
What is the synthesis and storage of steroids?
*made on demand
127
What is the release mechanism for proteins?
*exocytosis
128
What is the release mechanism for steroids?
*simple diffusion
129
What is the transport mechanism for proteins?
*dissolved in plasma
130
What is the transport mechanism for steroids?
*bound to a protein carrier
131
What is the half life for proteins?
*<2 min
132
What is the half life for steroids?
*hours
133
Why do steroids take hours?
*have chaperonin protecting the protein
134
What is the response to binding for proteins?
*2nd messenger, AC and cAMP
135
What is the response to binding for steroids?
*direct gene activation
136
What is the response to target for proteins?
*modify proteins (gates, pumps)
137
What is the response to target for steroids?
*protein syn, or mitosis
138
What is an example of a protein?
*insulin NE, Epi
139
What is an example of a steroid?
*testosterone, estrogen
140
What is another name for red blood cell?
*erythrocytes
141
What kind of tissue is blood?
*special connective tissue
142
What are all connective tissues made of?
*matrix and ground substance
143
What is the matrix?
*ground substance and proteins
144
What is the ground substance?
* plasma
| * > 100 dissolved proteins
145
What is the function of blood?
* distribution
* regulatory
* protection
146
What are some things blood distributes?
*gases, hormones, stem cell transport
147
What are some ways blood regulates?
*temperature, pH, and fluid volume
148
What are some ways blood protects you?
*leukocytes (immunity), antibodies, prevention of blood loss (platelets)
149
What is the plasma composition?
* proteins
* nutrients
* blood gasses
* electrolytes
* wastes
150
What are the 4 proteins in the plasma?
*albumin, globulins, fibrinogen, and enzyme hormones
151
What protein in the plasma is most abundant but smallest?
*albumin
152
What proteins in the plasma is for antibodies?
*globulins
153
What protein in the plasma is for the clotting progress?
*fibrinogen
154
What is the big electrolytes?
*Na
155
What is the total molarity of those dissolved particles that cannot pass through the blood vessel wall?
*osmolarity of blood
156
If osmolarity is too high what happens?
*blood absorbs too much water, increasing the blood pressure (restrict sodium intake)
157
If osmolarity is too low what happens?
*too much water stays in tissue, blood pressure drops, and edema (swelling) occurs
158
How is optimum osmolarity achieved?
*by the body’s regulation of sodium ions, proteins *, and red blood cells
159
What is one of the major proteins that helps achieve optiumum osmolarity?
*albumin
160
What is transcytosis?
*endocytosis on one side, exocytosis on the other
161
all formed elements started from what?
*stem cell called hemocytoblast
162
All stem cells are found where?
*in bone marrow
163
Are adult erythrocytes living?
*no, no nucleus or DNA
164
Features of RBC?
* biconcave disc shape
* no organelles
* no nucleus (no repair, or mitosis)
* non stop ATP through glycolysis
* can carry O2 but cannot use the O2 is carries (no mitochondria)
165
What do RBC lacks?
* mitochondria
| * nucleus and DNA
166
What is hemoglobin?
* quaternary structure
* 4 polypeptide chains
* 4 heme groups
* Fe at the center
167
Where is O2 carried?
*in the heme group
168
What is the erythrocyte function?
* carry hemoglobin and therefore functions to bind and release O2 and CO2
* release nitric oxide (NO)
169
What is a potent vasodilator that can dramatically increase blood flow?
*NO (nitric oxide)
170
What is hemopoiesis?
*development of blood cells and white blood cells
171
What is hypoxemia?
*low O2 in blood
172
Where do worn out erythrocytes get caught?
*in liver and spleen
173
What are the types of leukocytes?
* granulocytes
| * agranulocytes
174
What are the granulocytes?
* neutrophil
* eosinophil
* basophil
175
What granulocyte is multilobed and most abundant?
*neutrophil
176
What granulocyte is the first to arrive at a wound site and for bacterial infections?
*neutrophil
177
What granulocyte respond to allergies and parasitic worm infections?
*eosinophil
178
What granulocyte is involved in inflammation and releases histamine and heparin?
*basophil
179
What are the agranulocytes?
* monocytes
| * lymphocyte
180
What agranulocyte will become a phagocytes?
*monocyte
181
What agranulocyte is involved in viral infections and has T and B cells?
*lymphocytes
182
What are T lymphocytes stored?
*thymus
183
Where are B lymphocytes stored?
*blood born
184
What is leukopoeisis?
*formation of WBC
185
How are leukocytes developed?
* Begins with activation by chemicals known as colony stimulating factors……commonly called “cytokines”
* Cytokines are hormones (chemicals) , released by other leukocytes and inflammation, that stimulate stem cells and leukocytes
186
Cytokines are chemicals that active what?
*leukocytes
187
How do cytokines active leukocytes?
* Active stem cell -> adult
* Cause mitosis in existing or adult WBC
* Activated cells release cytokines
188
What is a movement of cells along a chemical gradient?
*chemotaxis
189
What is the passage of leukocytes through the intact walls of the capillaries, typically accompanying inflammation?
*diapedesis
190
What makes the space get bigger?
*histamine
191
What is the stoppage of blood flow?
*hemostasis
192
What are the platelets functions?
- release vasoconstrictor (serotonin, causes smooth muscle to contract)
- releases cytokines
- releases pro-coagulents
- attract monocytes
- encourage growth hormone release
193
What are the 3 steps in hemostasis?
1. vasospasm- after injury platelets release serotonin, serotonin causes smooth muscle contraction (narrow size, make blood flow slow down)
2. platelet plug formation- platelets become sticky (chemicals causes this)
3. blood clotting (coagulation)
* have protein fibrinogen in blood (soluble) ->(done by thrombin, activated by trauma) get fibrin (insoluble, protein strands)
194
A victim has type A blood (whole blood=plasma and formed elements). What type of erythrocytes can this person be given?
*type A and type O
195
what is a protein type structure?
*antigen
196
What is a protein built by B cells?
*antibodies
197
What is a blood clot?
*coagulation
198
What is an agglutination?
*antibody -> attaches to antigen
199
What does Flow=
*Blood Pressure (MAP-mean arterial pressure) /Resistance (TPR- total peripheral resistance)
200
What is the left side of the heart called?
*systemic circuit
201
What is the right side of the heart called?
*pulmonary circuit
202
What side of the heart has Lesser oxygenated blood arrives from inferior and superior venae cavae?
*right side
203
What side of the heart has Fully oxygenated blood arrives from lungs via pulmonary veins?
*left side
204
What side of the heart has blood sent to all organs of the body via aorta?
*left side
205
What receives the entire cardiac output?
*lungs
206
How is the heart adjusted?
* 3 nervous systems
| * endocrine system
207
What are the 3 nervous systems that adjust the heart?
* sympathetic
* parasympathetic
* sensory (control autonomic outputs)
208
What are the three layers of the heart?
* epicardium
* myocardium
* endocardium
209
What is the sac called around the heart?
*pericardium sac
210
What is the first layer of pericardium?
*epicardium or visceral pericardium
211
What protects the heart and adds lubricant, and keeps it from over expanding?
*parietal pericardium
212
What Allows heart to beat without friction, provides room to expand, yet resists excessive expansion?
*pericardium
213
What has a Serous lining of sac turns inward at base of heart to cover the heart surface?
*visceral pericardium
214
What has a Superficial fibrous layer of connective tissue
| and is Deep, thin serous layer?
*parietal pericardium
215
What is the serous membrane made out of?
*collagen
216
What has all of these things Serous membrane covering heart, Adipose in thick layer in some places, Coronary blood vessels travel through this layer?
*epicardium
217
What has all these things Smooth inner lining of heart and blood vessels and Covers the valve surfaces and is continuous with endothelium of blood vessels?
*endocardium
218
What is the middle layer that has cardiac myocytes?
*myocardium
219
What is extended through every single tube?
*endocardium
220
What has these thingsLayer of cardiac muscle proportional to work load and Muscle spirals around heart which produces wringing motion?
*myocardium
221
What is the fibrous skeleton of the heart?
*framework of collagenous and elastic fibers
222
What is any vessel that is leaving the heart?
*artery
223
What is any vessel leading to the heart?
*vein
224
What does the chordae tendinae prevent?
*the muscles from opening in the wrong direction
225
What side has the thicker myocardium and why?
*left for higher pressure
