Exam 3 Flashcards
(152 cards)
1
Q
Functions of the Respiratory system?
A
- gas exchange
- speech and vocalizations
- olfaction
- pH balance
- hormone synthesis or activation
- pressure for flow of lymph and venous blood
- lungs filter blood clots and small air bubbles
- valsalva for urination, defecation, birth
2
Q
What are the first line of filtration in the nose?
A
*guard hairs
3
Q
What covers guard hairs?
A
*mucus
4
Q
What type of tissue is found in the nasal cavity or conchae?
A
*pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
5
Q
What does the nasal cavity or conchae do?
A
*warms and humidifies the air
6
Q
How much mucous do you make in a day?
A
- 1 quart
7
Q
What do goblet cells secrete?
A
*mucous
8
Q
What are some things in mucous?
A
*H2O, enzymes, lysozomes
9
Q
What do lysozomes do?
A
*destroy pathogenic things
10
Q
What is Charles Law?
A
- gas expands when heated
* helps expand lung volume without muscular help
11
Q
What is a common place for both digestion and respiration?
A
*pharynx
12
Q
What is the voice box?
A
*larynx
13
Q
What does the larynx house?
A
*vocal cord
14
Q
What is the conducting division of the respiratory system?
A
- passages that serve only for airflow (tubes that move the air, the rest of the system will be for gas exchange)
- no gas exchange
- nostrils through major bronchioles
15
Q
What tissue is in the conducting division?
A
*mucous coated epithelium
16
Q
Why is there no gas exchange in the conducting division?
A
*too thick
17
Q
Why is cartilage on the trachea?
A
*to help keep it open
18
Q
What are all bronchi lined with?
A
*ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium
19
Q
How do the cells grow in the bronchial tree?
A
*shorter and the epithelium thinner
20
Q
What does the lamina propria have an abundance of?
A
*mucous glands and lymphocyte nodules
21
Q
What is positioned to intercept inhaled pathogens?
A
*bronchus associated lymphoid tissue (BALT)
22
Q
What do all divisions of bronchial tree have a large amount of?
A
*elastic connective tissue (contributes to the recoil that expels air from the lungs)
23
Q
What type of tissue is at the level of exchange division?
A
*cuboidal epithelium with a layer of muscle surrounding it
24
Q
What type of tissue do bronchioles have?
A
*smooth muscle and cuboidal
25
Is there mucous in the exchange region?
*no
26
What is the generation number of the exchange region?
*18-25 generations
27
What is the generation number in the conducting zone?
*17 generations
28
What are type I cells?
* squamous epithelium
| * thin (allow gas exchange)
29
What are type II cells?
*secretes respiratory surfactant
30
What does surfactant do?
*reduces surface tension across the membrane
31
What are dust cells (alveolar macrophage)?
*eats bacteria
32
What are the features of why gas exchange is so good?
* gasses are lipid soluble
* exchange surface areas are large
* diffusion distance is short
* pressure gradients are enormous
* perfusion/ventilation are matched
33
What is boyles law?
*P=1/V
34
In boyles law if the volume is increased what will happen?
*pressure will drop
35
What is the covering over the lungs?
*visceral pleura
36
What is the covering over the walls?
*parietal pleura
37
What Law states that each gas in a mixture will exert a pressure in proportion to its concentration?
*Dalton's law of partial pressure
38
What law states that the volume of a given quantity of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature (at constant pressure?
*Charles law
39
What law states that gas will move into a solution in proportion to its partial pressure and solubility (at constant temperature)?
*henry's law of solubility
40
What is air composed of?
*21% oxygen, 79% nitrogen and 0.001% carbon dioxide
41
What is atmospheric pressure at sea level?
*760mmHg
42
Total atmospheric pressure in Flagstaff is 600mmHg. The total atmospheric pressure on Mt. Everest is 235 mm Hg. Which of the following is the correct calculation for the partial pressure of oxygen on top of Everest (29,000ft)?
*21% X 235mmHg= 49mmHg
43
When gas expands as it warms up how does this help the lungs?
*helps inflate the lungs
44
In henry's law of solubility the greater the pressure what happens?
*the greater number of gas molecules in solution
45
What does Patm stand for?
*partial pressure in atmosphere
46
What does PA stand for?
*partial pressure in alveoli
47
What does Pa stand for?
*partial pressure in the artery
48
What does Pv stand for?
*partial pressure in venous
49
What is the problem with the gasses?
*not very soluble
50
What percentage of O2 and CO2 can be dissolved in plasma?
* 1.5% of O2 at 1atm pressure
| * 7% of CO2
51
What happens during the slope of the curve (during the steep portion)?
*there is a shape change of Hb
52
What does higher temperature do to the curve?
*moves it to the right (Hb depends on temperature)
53
What does lower pH do to the curve?
*moves the curve to the right
54
What is always the partial pressure in the alveoli at sea level (as long as your breathing)?
*105mmHg
55
What is the process of carrying gasses from the alveoli to the systemic tissues and vice versa?
*gas transport
56
How is oxygen transported?
* 98.5% bound to hemoglobin
| * 1.5% dissolved in plasma
57
How is carbon dioxide transported?
* 70% as bicarbonate
* 23% bound to hemoglobin
* 7% dissolved in plasma
58
O2 + Hb -->
*O2Hb (oxyhemoglobin)
59
The RBC picks up what?
*all the pressure from alveoli (which is like a water fall, RBC like a pick up truck wants to be full)
60
What is the P arterial O2?
*105mmHg
61
What is the P tissue O2?
*40mmHg (skeletal muscle takes it all)
62
What is the goal of gas exchange?
*keep pressure high (higher the pressure, the bigger the driving force)
63
What is steady state?
*readjusting the system to new demands
64
Demand is where, and supply is where?
*demand is at the tissue and supply is at the lungs
65
What at the tissue what kind of change is there?
*pH change, more H ions floating around, also get a temperature change
66
When does the affinity go down?
*when warms it and when pH goes up and increase CO2
67
What are the three forms carbon dioxide is transported in?
*carbonic acid, carbamino compounds, and dissolved in plasma
68
What percentage of bicarb is transferred out of the plasma?
*70%
69
What shift occurs at the tissue?
*chloride shift (bicarb out, Cl in)
70
What percent of CO2 is hydrated to form carbonic acid?
* 70%
| * then dissociates into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions
71
What enzyme does this CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 → HCO3- + H+?
*carbonic anhydrase
72
What percent binds to the amino groups of plasma proteins and hemoglobin to form carbamino compounds—chiefly carbaminohemoglobin (HbCO2)?
*23%
73
Can hemoglobin transport O2 and CO2 simultaneously?
*yes
74
What binds the H+ ion?
*hemoglobin
75
What happens when hemoglobin binds the H+ ion?
*(HHb, change pH or hemoglobin becomes more acidic, dumps off more O2 easier)
76
What does CO compete for?
*the O2 binding sites on the hemoglobin molecule
77
What has a higher affinity for hemoglobin?
*CO
78
What is CO?
*Colorless, odorless gas in cigarette smoke, engine exhaust, fumes from furnaces and space heaters
79
What is Carboxyhemoglobin?
*CO binds to ferrous ion of hemoglobin
80
What does carboxyhemoglobin do?
* Binds 210 times as tightly as oxygen
| * Ties up hemoglobin for a long time
81
Why does CO poisoning cause a person to turn red?
*the shape of hemoglobin is changed (so it reflects light at different color)
82
What is one reason why a person cannot fully saturate?
*altitude
83
If we start working out what happens?
*we don't have time in lung to load, compensate by adding more RBC
84
What are some factors that affect Hb loading?
* altitude
| * disease
85
What are some diseases that affect Hb loading?
* cardio vascular
* pulmonary insufficiencies
* anemia
* emphysema
86
What does emphysema do?
*less SA, less time in lungs
87
What is DRG?
*dorsal respiratory group
88
What is VRG?
*ventral respiratory group
89
Where do both the DRG and VRG have outputs to?
* diaphragm, intercoastals (somatic output)
| * muscles
90
What happens when the inspiratory neurons are on?
*inhale
91
What happens when the expiratory neurons are on?
*exhale
92
What are some neural control of breathing?
* voluntary control provided by motor cortex
* inspiratory neurons
* expiratory neurons
* innervations
93
What are innervations?
* fibers of phrenic nerve supply diaphragm
| * intercoastal nerves supply inercoastal muscle
94
The automatic, unconscious cycle of breathing is controlled by what pairs of respiratory centers in the reticular formation of the medulla oblongata and the pons?
* respiratory nuclei in medulla
* VRG
* DRG
* pons (pontine respiratory group)
95
What does the VRG do?
* primary generator of the respiratory rhythm (basic rhythm)
| * produces a respiratory rhythm of 12 breath per minute
96
How long does the inspiratory neurons fire for?
*about 2 seconds
97
How long does the expiratory neurons fire for?
*3 seconds (shut off inspiratory neurons)
98
What does the DRG have an effect on?
*the VRG
99
What is the DRG?
* forced breathing
* modifies the rate and depth of breathing
* receives influences from external sources
100
When you are working out what is involved? (DRG or VRG?
*DRG
101
What does the DRG respond to?
*levels of gases
102
What does the pons (PRG) do?
* modifies rhythm of the VRG by outputs to both the VRG and DRG
* adapts breathing to special circumstances such as sleep, exercise, emotional responses, and vocalization
103
Increase action potentials to DRG and VRG equals what?
*increase respiration
104
Decrease action potentials to DRG and VRG equals what?
*decrease respiration
105
Respiratory centers receive feedback from?
* chemoreceptors (O2, CO2)
* stretch receptors in lungs, joints, muscles
* irritant receptors (things you breath in)
* pain and emotion
106
What do central chemoreceptors respond to?
* changes in pH of cerebrospinal fluid
| * ensure stable CO2 level in the blood
107
What does the pH of cerebrospinal fluid reflect?
*the CO2 level in the blood
108
What do peripheral chemoreceptors respond to?
*the O2 and CO2 content and pH of blood
109
Where are peripheral chemoreceptors found?
*in carotid and aortic bodies of the large arteries above the heart
110
What can central chemoreceptors have?
*can have increase or decrease in H+ ion (responds to H+ concentration)
111
If there is an increase in H+ (more acidic) what happens?
*turn on the three centers and breath faster
112
What do peripheral chemo receptors do?
*increase or decrease in O2 levels
113
If O2 levels are low what happens?
*breath faster
114
What is the percentage drop we need before these centers kick in?
*60% drop
115
What do stretch receptors respond to?
*inflation of the lungs
116
Where are stretch receptors found?
*smooth muscles of bronchi and bronchioles, and in the visceral pleura
117
What kind of input are stretch receptors?
*positive input (have input that will change respiration)
118
What is the Hering- Breuer (inflation) reflex?
* protective reflex that inhibits inspiratory neurons stopping inspiration
* keeps lungs from overinflating
119
What is the Hering-Breuer reflex triggered by?
*excessive inflation
120
What do irritant receptors respond to?
*Respond to smoke, dust, pollen, chemical fumes, cold air, and excess mucus
121
Where are irritant receptors found?
*nerve endings amid the epithelial cells of the airway
122
What does irritant receptor trigger?
*Trigger protective reflexes such as bronchoconstriction, shallower breathing, breath-holding (apnea), or coughing
123
What kind of input is irritant receptors?
*negative, turning down respiration (ex. foul smell, hold breath)
124
What kind of input is pain?
*negative
125
What kind of input is emotion?
*positive (cause respiration to increase) or negative (depends on anxiety)
126
What is hyperventilation?
*anxiety-triggered state in which breathing is so rapid that it expels CO2 from the body faster than it is produced
127
As blood CO2 levels drop what happens to pH?
* the pH rises causing the cerebral arteries to constrict
| * This reduces cerebral perfusion which may cause dizziness or fainting
128
How can hyperventilation be brought under control?
*by having the person rebreathe the expired CO2 from a paper bag
129
What is the total volume of air moved?
*pulmonary ventilation
130
What is the volume of air at the exchange surface?
*alveolar ventilation
131
What is called the dead space and what happens there?
* conducting zone (150mL)
| * no gas exchange
132
What is the total ventilation we have in our lungs?
*500mL O2 X 12 breaths/min =6L/min
133
The more we reach the alveolar space the better what happens?
*the better exchange
134
What is alveolar ventilation?
* Only air that enters the alveoli is available for gas exchange (not all inhaled air gets there)
* About 150 mL fills the conducting division of the airway
* Anatomic dead space
135
What can the dead space be altered by?
*somewhat by sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation
136
What happens in pulmonary diseases?
* some alveoli may be unable to exchange gases because they lack blood flow or the respiratory membrane has been thickened by edema or fibrosis
137
What is physiologic (total) dead space?
*Sum of anatomic dead space and any pathological alveolar dead space
138
What is alveolar ventilation rate (AVR)?
*Air that ventilates alveoli (350 mL) X respiratory rate (12 bpm) = 4,200 mL/min.
139
What is this measurement most directly relevant to?
*the body’s ability to get oxygen to the tissues and dispose of carbon dioxide
140
What is residual volume?
*1,300 mL that cannot be exhaled with maximum effort
141
If tissues drop in O2 what do you get?
*vasodilation
142
If lungs drop in O2 what do you get?
*vasoconstriction
143
Perfusion and ventilation has what types of muscles associated with them?
*2 smooth muscles
144
What does the smooth muscle on the sphincter react to?
*O2 in alveoli
145
If you have low O2 in alveoli what do you get?
*vasoconstriction
146
If you have high O2 in the alveoli what do you get?
*vasodilation
147
What does the smooth muscle on the alveoli react to?
*CO2 in alveoli (should be about 40mmHg)
148
If there is high CO2 what will you get?
*bronchodilation
149
What are some nonrespiratory reflexes?
*sneeze, cough, hiccup, yawn
150
What is a sneeze for?
*to clear upper airway
151
What is a cough for?
* clear the lower airway
| * raise pressure in lungs
152
What is a hiccup?
*spasm of diaphragm
