Exam 1 Flashcards
(269 cards)
1
Q
disease acts as a ______ in human evolution
A
disease acts as a selective mechanism in human evolution
2
Q
list the three types of disease
A
- genetic/inherited (cystic fibrosis)
- degenerative (atherosclerosis)
- infectious (TB)
3
Q
with a degenerative disease a person is the victim of _____/______
A
lifestyle/lifespan
4
Q
infectious diseases are caused by _______
A
pathogenic agents
5
Q
the highest mortality rate worldwide is due to ________ but ______ may overlap all categories
A
the highest mortality rate worldwide is due to respiratory infections but cancer may overlap all categories
6
Q
infectious agents evolved from ______ of other _______
A
infectious agents evolved from parasites of other animal hosts (reservoirs)
7
Q
______ harbor pathogens, pass them to humans
A
reservoirs
8
Q
vectors (usually ______) contribute to _______ to humans
A
vectors (usually insects) contribute to crossover to humans
9
Q
most pathogens are _______ and ______ but some are ______
A
most pathogens are bacterial and viral but some are protozoa
10
Q
______ cause malaria
A
protozoa
11
Q
there has been a gradual trend downwards in death due to infectious agents until recently with an ______ due to _______
A
there has been a gradual trend downwards in death due to infectious agents until recently with an increase due to emerging disease agents
12
Q
many of these emerging disease agents are ______
A
RNA viruses
13
Q
emerging agents develop when the pathogen passes from the _______ due to _____
A
emerging agents develop when the pathogen passes from the animal reservoir due to mutations
14
Q
two recent emerging agents
A
SARS and MERS
15
Q
________ of agents led to epidemics
A
ease of transmission of agents led to epidemics
16
Q
list the 4 main ways epidemics start
A
- domestication of animals
- urbanization
- climate change
- trade and travel
17
Q
domesticated animals can be _____
A
reserviors
18
Q
the first domesticated animal (the ____), carried ______ which eventually transferred to humans
A
the first domesticated animal (the dog), carried measles which eventually transferred to humans
19
Q
with urbanization came an _____ density of people which allowed for easier transmission of ______
A
with urbanization came an INC density of people which allowed for easier transmission of communicable diseases
20
Q
_____ come with INC density of people and carry disease
A
vermin come with INC density of people and carry disease
21
Q
with urbanization there was also more _______ which is ripe for the production of viruses and bacteria
A
sewage
22
Q
agents and or the vermin that carry them like _____ climate
A
warmer
23
Q
when ______ in the SW U.S. brings wet weather the _____ population increases and so does the ___virus
A
when el nino in the SW U.S. brings wet weather the rodent population increases and so does the hantavirus
24
Q
travel allows for the spread of _______
A
infectious agents
25
flights over ____ hours lead to an INC chance of infection
3 hours
26
the bubonic plague in Europe was spread by _____ due to rodents being carried with goods
trade
27
the arrival of ______ in mosquito larva in water from imported tires
west nile virus
28
an epidemic in plants is called a
blight
29
epidemics are controlled by what 4 things
1. surveillance and containment (quarantine and isolation)
2. antimicrobials (antibiotics and antivirals)
3. vaccination programs
4. public health standards
30
for containment, there are about 100 diseases that are _____ to the CDC (which reports trends to the _____ )
for containment, there are about 100 diseases that are notifiable to the CDC (which reports trends to the health industry)
31
antimicrobials (antibiotics and antivirals) are ______ in ______
stockpiled in public health centers
32
there are vaccination programs that give ___ and ___ to infants
DPT and MMR vaccines
33
the number of vaccines required varies from ____ to _____
state to state
34
public health standards regulate contamination levels in ______, _____, and ______
food, water, and sewage
35
______ amounts are limited in drinking water
coliform
36
the coliform and enterococcus levels allowed in _______ is 1000X higher
recreational water
37
with sewage there is ______, ______, and _____ treatment
primary, secondary, and tertiary treatment
38
primary sewage treatment decreases pathogen level by _____
sedimentation
39
if there is no municipal sewage district the homeowner must have a ___ or ____ (___ treatment_
cesspool or septic tank (primary treatment)
40
herd immunity is when _____ may be high but to due the _____ of resistance not everyone will die and ____ will be passed on
herd immunity is when mortality may be high but to due the heterogeneity of resistance not everyone will die and resistance will be passed on
41
if the agent changes ______ does not apply (ex_____)
herd immunity (example id the flu variants every year)
42
when there is no _____ vaccination for 75% of the population can eradicate the epidemic agents
reservoir
43
pasteur also created the _______
germ theory of disease
44
koch associated a ____ with a disease by his _____
koch associated a pathogen with a disease by his postulates
45
but kochs postulates required ______ and this became a problem with _____
but kochs postulates required animal and this became a problem with viruses
46
so instead of using postulates today we use _____ of viruses that appear with individuals that have the same symptoms
genetic profiles
47
helminths (____) have life cycles in which eggs or ova are produced _______ then move outside via ____ to contaminate ____
helminths (worms) have life cycles in which eggs or ova are produced inside the host (intestines) then move outside via feces to contaminate soil
48
helminths can remain dormant in the soil for ____ or develop into ____ that pass into other hosts via contaminated food
helminths can remain dormant in the soil for several months or develop into larvae that pass into other hosts via contaminated food
49
____ are distinct for each type of helminth
ova
50
once infected by the helminth the host suffers: _____, ______, _____, and possible ______
once infected by the helminth the host suffers: emaciation (loss of nutrition), anemia (lack of vitamins), obstruction (pain), and possible allergic reactions
51
platyhelminths (_______) can be ____ or _____
platyhelminths (flatworms) can be flukes or tapeworms
52
5 characteristics of platyhelminths
1. hermaphroditic
2. no digestive tract
3. have outer cuticle
4. body segmented with proglottids and scolex
5. can live anaerobically
53
4 characteristics of nematodes
1. have a digestive tract
2. dioecious (separation of sexes)
3. non segmented
4. larva need oxygen to mature
54
4 characteristics of pathogenic protozoa
1. characterized by motility (except apicomplexa)
2. holozoic feeding (eat bacteria, clarifies water)
3. encystment
4. all eukaryotic
55
some pathogenic protozoa have pellicles which are an
outer cover of lipoprotein
56
pathogenic protozoa reproduce by
1.
2.
1. sexual fusion
| 2. asexual fission
57
most pathogenic protozoa can encyst in a protein shell and become
dormant for months
58
pathogenic protozoa have _______ which serve as a water pump to control osmotic pressure
contractile vacuoles
59
amoebic dysentery is caused by _______ in ______ that liberate trophozoites in ______
amoebic dysentery is caused by entamoeba cysts in feces that liberate trophozoites in intestines
60
amoebic dysentery causes _____ and ______
ulceration and liver damage
61
there are many carriers of entamoeba cysts in tropical areas that leads to chronic reinfection due to _____
poor water quality
62
______ in sewage may affect cornea of contact lens wearers (_______)
acanthamoeba in sewage may affect contact lens wearers (keratitis)
63
acanthamoeba may also be an agent of ______ (support ______)
humidifier fever (support legionella)
64
acanthamoeba cysts can ______
aerosolize
65
naegleria are found in _____/____ water
warm/fresh
66
naegleria can infect the ______ and cause fatal meningitis in 1 week (___)
naegleria can infect the nasal passages and cause fatal meningitis in 1 week (PAM)
67
PAM may not only be caused by naegleria but also ______
acanthamoeba
68
giardiasis is _____ due to water contaminated with _____
giardiasis is diarrhea due to water contaminated with giardia
69
giardia are _____
flagellated
70
giardia cysts are resistant to
chlorine
71
giardiasis is passed through _____ like ______ and interferes with ______
giardiasis is passed through wild animals like beavers and interferes with fat absorption
72
______ protects infants from giardiasis
human milk
73
humans can excrete the giardia cysts for ____
years
74
the giardia throphozoite has 2 _____ and 2 _____
2 adhesive disks and 2 nuclei
75
______ causes vaginitis which is a rampant STD (can be _____)
trichomonas causes vaginitis which is a rampant STD (can be asymptomatic)
76
trichomoniasis can be transmitted by _____ or _____
contaminated toilet seats or linens
77
trichomonas have a _____ and _______ and no ____ form so can be easily treated
trichomonas have a flagella and axostyle and no cyst form so can be easily treated
78
male can act as a reservoir for trichomonas and ___% of the population may carry it
50%
79
leishmania is transmitted by ____ with a _____ reservoir
sand fly with a rodent reservoir
80
leishmania multiply in _____ and invades _____ or forms boils on skin
leishmania multiply in macrophages and invades RES or forms boils on skin
81
____ are protozoa with no means of motility
apicomplexa
82
cryptosporidium are carried in ____ and cause _____
carried in water and cause diarrhea
83
______ is a big problem with malnourished children and AIDS patients
cyrptosporidium
84
cryptosporidium is an apicomplexan transmitted by ____, ____, _____, and _____
cattle, birds, dogs, and cats
85
cryptosporidium cysts are resistant to
chlorination
86
gastroenteritis from cryptosporidium may last up to 2 weeks and ____% of the population may carry it
10%
87
_____ is transmitted from cat feces (dried cysts) or beef (uncooked)
toxoplasma
88
flies and birds may harbor toxoplasma and ____ are often infected
pigs
89
the toxoplasma trophozoite invades the _____ and travels to the ____, _____, _____, and the ______
the toxoplasma trophozoite invades the intestines and travels to the lymph, muscles, meninges, and the optic nerve
90
toxoplasma can act as a _____ (affects the fetus)
teratogen
91
babesia is transmitted by ____ from rodents
ticks
92
babesia was once associated with _____ and _____ (reservoir)
cattle and deer mice
93
babesia causes _____ like symptoms (RBC damage)
malaria like symptoms
94
microbes first appeared ____ years ago
4 billion
95
primitive cell forms had ____ membrane enclosing a cytoplasm with ____ and ____ as well as ____
primitive cell forms had lipid-protein membrane enclosing a cytoplasm with marine water and protein as well as RNA
96
transformation to DNA based life may have occurred when _____ appeared
reverse transcriptase enzyme
97
original organisms were _____
anaerobic
98
the appearance of photopigments led to
cyanobacteria
99
cyanobacteria used ____ to produce oxygen and create more organic nutrients
photosynthesis
100
the creation of oxygen by cyanobacteria allowed ____ to evolve (along with the creation of the ozone shield)
aerobes
101
aerobes need ___% oxygen
1%
102
marine cyanobacteria are still a major source of the worlds ____
oxygen
103
as oxygen levels increased eukaryotes (____) and _____ forms appeared
as oxygen levels increased eukaryotes (yeast) and multicellular forms appeared
104
cyanobacteria (prokaryote) diversified into ____
algae (eukaryote)
105
spirochetes diversified into ______
protozoa (eukaryote)
106
actinomycetes diversified into ____
fungi
107
rickettsia, _____, and ______ de-evolved
rickettsia, chlamydia, and mycoplasma de-evolved
108
____ and ______ are not pathogens but can produce toxins
algae and cyanobacteria
109
_____ formed from cyanobacteria
microcystins
110
microcystins are in warm/stagnant water and can _____
toxify liver
111
______ of algae can paralyze
red tide neurotoxins
112
in the five kingdom classification the prokaryotes are in the _____
monera
113
monera consists of what 6 things
1. eubacteria
2. archae
3. rickettsia
4. chlamydia
5. mycoplasma
6. cyanobacteria
114
in the five kingdoms classification algae and protozoa are _____
protista
115
in the five kingdoms classification ___ and ____ are fungi
yeast and mold
116
viruses (______ and _____ particles) and excluded from the kingdoms because they ____
viruses (protein and nucleic acid particles) and excluded from the kingdoms because they are non living
117
the three domain classification is based solely on
genetic similarities
118
list the three domains
1. bacteria
2. archabacteria
3. all eukaryotes
(both 1 and 3 are prokaryotes)
119
viroids are simply loops of ____ that produce infections in plants
DNA
120
hepatitis D is now considered a human ____
viroid
121
hep d needs a helper virus (hep b?) to ______
cause damage
122
viroids dont make their own _____ and may be carried by _____
viroids dont make their own proteins and may be carried by insects
123
____ are proteins that normally situate in cell but may change shape (PrPSC form) and not fit into the membrane, they accumulate as amyloids (junk) in the cell
prions
124
if this junk accumulation occurs in neurons they die and you get ______
spongiform disease of the brain
125
spongiform disease of the brain is known and ____ or ____ in humans
mad cow or CJ in humans
126
with prions ___ and ____ are first affected
memory and locomotion
127
abnormal prions develop from mutation (______) or _____ through food from contaminated animals
abnormal prions develop from mutation (inherited CJ) or acquired through food from contaminated animals
128
to cross the species barrier, acquired prion must ______ the ______ sequence of _____
to cross the species barrier, acquired prion must resemble the amino acid sequence of the host prion
129
______ are the most abundant prokaryote
eubacteria
130
eubacteria are classified in terms of ____
shape
131
list the three shapes of eubacteria
spiral
bacillus
coccus
132
eubacteria get their shape from the
wall
133
though there are the three shapes many eubacteria are _____ and change shape with age
pleiomorphic
134
as organisms divide the _______ determines whether it will be filaments, chains, or aggregates
plane of division
135
____ are the longest eubacteria
spirochetes
136
_____ are the smallest eubacteria
cocci
137
smaller organisms have a high ____/______ ratio which allows for rapid exchange of nutrients and fast growth
surface area/volume ratio
138
organisms with ______ have higher diffusion rates and can attach to surfaces better
projections
139
first structure to evolve from prototype cell was _____
cell wall
140
key component of the cell wall is ______
peptidoglycan (rigidity)
141
______ have a greater amount of peptidoglycan
gram positives
142
in the cell wall there are glycan units linked by ____ side chains
peptide side chains
143
gram negatives have an outer membrane of ____ on the surface and _____ on the underside
LPS on the surface and LP on the underside
144
in gram negatives the peptidoglycan is the inner layer of the cell wall and only makes up ___-____ % of it
5-10%
145
the gram negative's outer membrane has ____ which screen out by molecular weight
porins
146
gram negatives also have _______ on surface and endotoxic lipid A (a _____)
gram negatives also have O-polysaccharide antigens on surface and endotoxic lipid A (a pyrogen)
147
the _____ of the gram negative can initiate septic shock
LPS
148
when lysozyme and penicillins attack the gram negative peptidoglycan the bacillary cells convert to ______ (have a partial cell wall) which can revert back to normal
spheroplasts
149
spheroplasts will eventually produce _____ (no wall material) which lyse easily
protoplasts
150
with listeria, the _____ form (no walls_ can remain stable and revert back to normal cell
L form
151
the removal of ____ from gram negative walls will lead to loss of gram stain
lipids
152
gram positives have ____% peptidoglycan
95%
153
gram positives ____ lose primary stain
do not
154
gram positives can have ____ chains at the surface (can be antigenic)
teichoic acid chains
155
some gram positives have outermost protein layer, _____< that is found in archaebacteria
s layer
156
mycobacterium have multilayered walls with _____ and _____ on outermost layer (porins too)
mycobacterium have multilayered walls with lipids and proteins on outermost layer (porins too)
157
mycobacterium have peptidoglycan in _____ numbers under lipoprotein that makes the organism resistant to staining
low
158
for mycobacterium the _____ stain is needed
acid-fast
159
mycobacterium can remain viable in the air for ____
months
160
gram negatives also have ______ a gel filled space under wall (not in gram positive)
periplasm
161
the periplasm may contain _____ enzymes that can break down antibiotics (lactamases)
hydrolytic enzymes
162
the prokaryote _____ is similar to the one in eukaryotes
cytoplasmic membrane
163
the cytoplasmic membrane in prokaryotes has a double layer of lipids and proteins that traverse it (prokaryote is __-___% protein, eukaryotes ___%)
pro - 60-70%
| euk - 50%
164
bacterial plasma membranes lack _____ (except mycoplasma) and have ____ for stability
lack cholesterol (except mycoplasma) and have hopanoids for stability
165
glycocalyx is made up of ____ and _____ and may form on outside of wall
polysaccharides and water
166
glycocalyx in high density is a
capsule
167
glycocalyx in low density is a
slime layer
168
when the glycocalyx interconnects it forms a _____ also called a _____
when the glycocalyx interconnects it forms a matrix also called a biolfilm
169
these glycocalyx formation allows organisms to _____ to surfaces and it prevents rapid ______
these glycocalyx layers allow organisms to attach to surfaces and it prevents rapid dehydration
170
the glycocalyx can also protect against _____ and _____ attack in pathogens like streptococcus and pseudomonas
antibiotics and neutrophil attack
171
some bacteria have straw-like projections that are:
short and numerous ______
long and single or double _____
short and numerous, fimbriae
| long and single or double, pilli
172
fimbriae help with attachment and ______
colonization
173
pilli allow for exchange of
dna
174
both fimbriae and pilli are made of _____ and are _____
made of protein and are hollow
175
bacteria may also have _____ which have a similar protein structure
flagella
176
flagella are anchored to the wall by a ____ at the end of organisms
basal body
177
the basal body acts as a
generator
178
there may be ___ or more flagella on a cell, for example e coli has ___
there may be 1 or more flagella on a cell, for example e coli has 10
179
the hook arrangement of flagella allows movement as _____
propeller
180
if moving counterclockwise all flagella become _____ to produce a ____ or run movement
if moving counterclockwise all flagella become bundled to produce a straight line or run movement
181
if rotation of flagella is clockwise the organism
tumbles in one place
182
bacteria with flagella have a ______ response in which receptors in the wall detect glucose (nutrients) or oxygen and by means of a signal system control movement
chemotaxis
183
protein antigen on flagella ________
H
184
spirochetes have _____
endoflagella
185
the endoflagella of the spirochete lies beneath _____ but outside _____
beneath lipoprotein sheath but outside wall
186
many bacteria possess ____ apparatus (especially gram negative)
secretion apparatus
187
the secretion apparatus allows for _____ (uses ATP) of materials such as ____ and _____
the secretion apparatus allows for active pumping (uses ATP) of materials such as toxins and enzymes
188
in prokaryotes most of the cytoplasm is ____ with ____ the most abundant inorganic
water (70-80%) with protein the most abundant inorganic
189
in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes are ____ and ____ only
ribosomes and inclusions
190
___ dna strand is intertwined within the cytoplasm as one chromosome
one
191
the inclusions are _____ which may contain phosphate, sugars (glycogen), or lipids
storage granules
192
aquatic bacteria may contain granules of ____ that assist in navigation
iron (magnetite)
193
bacillary organisms contain a ________ of actin like fibers which spiral on underside of the cell membrane
microcytoskeleton
194
the microcytoskeleton acts to reinforce the membrane and direct enzymes into _____
division plane
195
bacterial growth and metabolism is dependent upon
enzymes
196
enzymes are catalysts of reactions that break down (______) or build up (______)
break down (catabolism) or build up (anabolism/synthesis)
197
enzymes may be present all the time (______) or only when temporary conditions exit (_______)
enzymes may be present all the time (constitutive) or only when temporary conditions exit (inducible)
198
specific structure of enzyme due to protein part, but _____ (vitamin) or ______ (mineral) helps binding to substrate at _____
specific structure of enzyme due to protein part, but coenzyme (vitamin) or cofactor (mineral) helps binding to substrate at active site
199
catalase allows for rapid breakdown of ____ but it needs _____
breakdown of peroxide but it needs iron
200
________ are produced outside the cell and degrade complex organics to simple molecules that pass through the membrane (key to biodegradation by bacteria and fungi, composting)
exoenzymes
201
______ are found inside the cell as part of pathways
endoenzymes
202
```
biodegradation involves exoenzymes that break down:
proteins, ______
carbohydrates, ______
lipids, ______
organic materials, _______
around cells
```
proteins, putrefaction
carbohydrates, souring
lipids, rancidity
organic materials, detritus
203
pathogens are ______, use organic carbon (sugar) and organic nitrogen (amino acids)
heterotrophs
204
bacteria require less cofactors than _____ (fewer enzymes)
eukaryotes
205
only ____ vitamins are used by bacterial enzymes
b vitamins
206
of the major minerals bacteria don't require
calcium
207
many bacteria produce amylase, cellulose, proteases, and lipases but do not degrade
agar a polysaccharide
208
infectious bacteria like clostridium might use exoenzymes to degrade _____ (myonecrosis, cellulitis)
tissue
209
the uptake of iron is enhances by ______ that trap iron in tissues
siderophores
210
the uptake of nutrients is enhanced by active transport (use ATP) like the _____ transporter and the ____ system
```
ABC transporter
PTS system (adds phosphate to sugar)
```
211
peptidoglycan formation employs ______ for export through membrane
bactoprenol
212
alternate to glycolysis ______ (simpler, 4 steps versus 8)
entner dourdoroff
213
another alternate to glycolysis is the _______ which allows organisms to store glucose
pentose-phosphate pathway
214
microbes that degrade lipids have _____ pathway that uses fatty acids in a TCA-like breakdown
glyoxylate
215
ETS of bacteria in membrane with ______ as an alternate when O2 level is high
cytochromes
216
______ have the ability to use alternate electron acceptors such as NO3 or CO2
strict anaerobes
217
enteric organisms may use organics as electron acceptors in
fermentation
218
_____ use O2 first, then to no O2
facultative anaerobes (can adjust to changes in growth condition)
219
in _______ clostridium/e coli in ____ produce products like propionic acid, acetic acid, and butanol as well as gas, vitamin K, fatty acids (if diet starchy), and nitrosamines (carcinogenic)
colonic fermentation in LI
220
in synthetic reactions amino acids produce: _____, _____, _____
peptidoglycan, fimbriae, flagella
221
in synthetic reactions sugars used to produce: _______ (____,____) and convert to lipids for membrane
polysaccharides (LPS,glycocalyx) and convert to lipids for membrane
222
in synthetic reactions nucleic acids are produced from ___ and _______
sugars and amino acids
223
_____ is the most important carbon source
glucose
224
medium used to support culture maintencance
nutrient broth
225
medium used to preserve specimen
transport, stuarts or amies
226
all media contain a _____ source, a _____ source, and a ____ source
carbon, nitrogen, and mineral source
227
enriched media has
additives like blood
228
differential media has
unique sugars added
229
selective media has
inhibitors such as bile
230
_____ is the values in which a microbe can survive
cardinal range
231
_____ is where the growth of a microbe is highest
optimum range
232
bacteria prefer PH around
neutral
233
but they can also tolerate a low pH like lactobacillus which will tolerate a pH of ____
4
234
detergents are usually alkaline (above pH ___)
9
235
optimum temperature for bacteria is between ___ and ____
25-37
236
_____ grow best in moderate temperatures
mesophiles
237
pathogens CAN survive in temperatures ___-____
10-40
238
____ can grow at 10-15 (food hazard)
listeria
239
most bacteria require O2 (______) in sugar metabolism
aerobes
240
_____ like less than 8% oxygen
microaerophiles
241
some prefer no oxygen, called _____
anaerobes (substitute gases like N2 and H2 for O2)
242
bacteria normally have an Aw (humidity) requirement of
1 (100% RH)
243
_____ can survive at .8 (80% RH)
staphylococcus
244
_____ can survive at even lower RH
fungi
245
bacterial fission depends on _____ time
dna duplication
246
_____ forms as DNA strands separate into new cells
preseptum
247
_____ has a generation time of 12 hours
mycobacterium
248
___ has a generation time of 30 minutes
e coli
249
incubation time for:
bacteria
viral
fungal
bacteria - 2-3 days
viral - 5-7 days
fungal - 1-2 weeks
250
septation follows _____
dna replication
251
pleomorphic is difficult to identify
microscopically
252
_____ forms lack a cell wall
L form
253
_____ develops as pathogens become less virulent
morbidity
254
____ indicated that cholera was transmitted by water supplies
snow
255
_____ demonstrated that malaria was transmitted by vectors
ross
256
related symptoms to infectious agent by protocol
koch
257
associated germs with contamination
pasteur
258
described an alternate glycolytic pathway
enter
259
progolottids may be
gravid
260
vegetative form of protozoa
trophozoite
261
nematode of fish
anisakis
262
causes malaria
plasmodium
263
cyst form appear in muscle
trichinella
264
anaerobic spore former
clostridium
265
may infect cornea from contact lens that is contaminated
acanthamoeba
266
often associated with intestinal infections from contaminated water
giardia
267
pinworm
enterobius
268
produces malaria like symptoms
baesia
269
can infect nerve tissue and fetus
toxoplasma
