Exam 1

Question 1

motor skills / actions

Answer 1

Motor skills require body, head, and/or limb movement to achieve its goal

Question 2

movements

Answer 2

specific limbs or combination of limbs that are components of skills / actions)

Question 3

One dimension classification systems for movements

Answer 3

1. • Size of Primary Musculature Required
     - Gross
     - Fine
2. * Specificity of where the motor skill begins and end
   - Discrete motor skills - specified beginning and end points, usually require a simple movement
   e. g. flipping a light switch
   - Continuous motor skills - arbitrary beginning and end points; usually involve repetitive movements
   e. g. steering a car
3. stability of enviorment
   - Closed motor skills – – involve a stationary supporting surface, object, and/or other people; performer determines when to begin the action
   e. g. picking up a cup while seated at a table
   - Open motor skill- – involve supporting surface, object, and/or other people in motion; environment features determines when to begin the action
   e. g. catching a thrown ball

Question 4

Open motor skill

Answer 4

– involve supporting surface, object, and/or other people in motion; environment features determines when to begin the action
e.g. catching a thrown ball

Question 5

Closed motor skills

Answer 5

– involve a stationary supporting surface, object, and/or other people; performer determines when to begin the action
e.g. picking up a cup while seated at a table

Question 6

Discrete motor skills

Answer 6

specified beginning and end points, usually require a simple movement
e.g. flipping a light switch

Question 7

Continuous motor skills

Answer 7

arbitrary beginning and end points; usually involve repetitive movements

Question 8

Gross motor skills

Answer 8

• require the use of large musculature to achieve the goal of the skills
  e. g. walking, jumping

Question 9

Fine motor skills

Answer 9

require control of small muscles to achieve the goal of the skill
e.g. skills involving hand/eye coordination

Question 10

Taxonomy

Answer 10

A classification system organized according to relationships among the component characteristics of what is being classified

Question 11

Gentile Taxonomy classifications

Answer 11

1. Environmental context

2. Function of the action

Question 12

Enviormetal context characterisitics

Answer 12

***Regulatory conditions
Characteristics of environment that control the movement characteristics of an action
**Intertrial variability
Whether the regulatory conditions are the same or different from one performance attempt to another

Question 13

Function of the action

Two characteristics

Answer 13

1) Body orientation: whether or not the body stays in the same location (stability) or changes location (passive- on the bus – or active – walking)
2) Object manipulation: maintaining or changing the position of an object

Question 14

Performance

Answer 14

Execution of a skill at a specific time and in a specific location
**Observable behavior

Question 15

Learning

Answer 15

Not directly observable
Must be inferred from observable behavior
Definition: A change in the capability to perform a skill that must be inferred from a relatively permanent improvement in performance as a result of practice or experience

Question 16

performance variables

Answer 16

factors that affect performance but not learning, such as stress, fatigue, etc.)

Question 17

performance tes

Answer 17

assesses how one does in a particular session at a given time

Question 18

five characteristics of skill learning

Answer 18

Improvement (over time)
Consistency (less standard deviation)
Stability (resistant to internal – e.g., stress - and external – e.g., weather perturbation)
Persistence (retention – lasts over increasing periods of time)
Adaptability (contextual variety – adaptable to a variety of performance contexts, sometimes called generalizable)

Question 19

Improvement

Answer 19

ovrtime

Question 20

consistency

Answer 20

less standard deviation

Question 21

Stability

Answer 21

resistant to internal – e.g., stress - and external – e.g., weather perturbation)

Question 22

Persistence

Answer 22

(retention – lasts over increasing periods of time)

Question 23

Adaptability

Answer 23

Adaptability (contextual variety – adaptable to a variety of performance contexts, sometimes called generalizable)

Adaptability (contextual variety – adaptable to a variety of performance contexts, sometimes called generalizable)

Adaptability (contextual variety – adaptable to a variety of performance contexts, sometimes called generalizable)

Adaptability (contextual variety – adaptable to a variety of performance contexts, sometimes called generalizable)

Adaptability (contextual variety – adaptable to a variety of performance contexts, sometimes called generalizable)

Adaptability (contextual variety – adaptable to a variety of performance contexts, sometimes called generalizable)

Adaptability (contextual variety – adaptable to a variety of performance contexts, sometimes called generalizable)

(contextual variety – adaptable to a variety of performance contexts, sometimes called generalizable)

Question 24

Performance curves

Answer 24

• ** x-axis (time units or trials) and y-axis (units of performance measurement)***
• Linear
• Neatively accelerated
• Positively accelerated
• Ogive or S- shaped

Question 25

Linear

Answer 25

Proportional increases over trials or time

Question 26

Negatively accelerated

Answer 26

Early improvement but slows during latter practice

Question 27

Positively accelerated

Answer 27

Slight improvement early but substantial improvement during later practice

Question 28

Ogive or S-shaped

Answer 28

compination of linear, negative, positive curve

Question 29

four main methods of assessing learning

Answer 29

Observing practice performance (performance curves) 2. Retention 3. Transfer tests 4. Coordination dynamics

Question 30

Retention test

Answer 30

Tests of a practiced skill that a learner performs following an interval of time after practice has ceased

Question 31

Transfer tests

Answer 31

adaptability of performance changes, either in novel (different) contexts or novel skill variations Performing the practiced skill in a context or situation different from practice, e.g.: Availability of augmented feedback Physical environment Personal characteristics

Question 32

Coordination dynamics

Answer 32

transitions in the dynamics of movement coordination

Question 33

performance plateau

Answer 33

steady state followed by improvement again)

Question 34

Practice Performance May Misrepresent Learning

Answer 34

1. Practice may involve a performance variable that artificially inflates or depresses performance 2. Practice may involve performance plateaus

Question 35

Fitts and Posner Three-Stage Model

Answer 35

Cognitive : Beginner focuses on solving cognitively-oriented problems Associative: Person has learned to associate cues from the environment with required movements; works to refine performance to be more consistent Autonomous: Final stage where performance of the skill is “automatic” (in terms of attention demanded)

Question 36

Gentile’s Two-Stage Model

Answer 36

Initial stage | Later Stage

Question 37

Intial stage of Gentiles two stage model

Answer 37

1. Movement coordination pattern to enable some degree of success achieving action goal 2. Learn to discriminate between regulatory and non-regulatory conditions in environmental context

Question 38

Later Stage of Gentile Two stage model

Answer 38

1. Adapting movement pattern acquired in Initial stage to demands of any performance situation 2 Increase consistency of action goal achievement 3. Perform with an economy of effort

Question 39

two environmental contexts the beginner must learn to distinguish

Answer 39

refer to characteristics of the performance environment that do or do NOT influence the movement required to do the action

Question 40

Fixation

Answer 40

deals with learning closed skills; learner refines movement patterns so they can produce them correctly, consistently, efficiently

Question 41

diversification

Answer 41

deals with learning open skills; learner acquires capability to modify movement patterns according to environmental context

Question 42

CHANGES ACROSS STAGES OF LEARNING

Answer 42

``` 1) Changes in the RATE of improvement in various stages of learning Know the power law of practice 2) Changes in movement coordination and degrees of freedom 3) Changes in altering old patterns 4) Changes in muscle use 5) Changes in energy cost 6) Changes in visual selectivity 7) Changes in conscious attention 8) Changes in error detection 9) Changes in brain activity ```

Question 43

freezing degrees of freedom

Answer 43

the person (beginner) holds some joints rigid while performing the skill

Question 44

one aspect or characteristic that does NOT change across stages

Answer 44

Sensory Feedback

Question 45

What defines an expert?

Answer 45

Time of practice needed – 10 years minimum Ways of organizing information – more organized concepts and can inter-relate concepts Time of practice needed – 10 years minimum Ways of organizing information – more organized concepts and can inter-relate concepts Time of practice needed – 10 years minimum Ways of organizing information – more organized concepts and can inter-relate concepts Time of practice needed – 10 years minimum Ways of organizing information – more organized concepts and can inter-relate concepts Time of practice needed – 10 years minimum Ways of organizing information – more organized concepts and can inter-relate concepts

Question 46

transfer

Answer 46

– positive (beneficial effect of previous experience on learning), negative (negative effect of previous experience on learning), and zero (no effect)

Question 47

negative transfer

Answer 47

Considered rare and temporary in motor skill learning | Occurs when new skill or context involves

Question 48

the two theories of why transfer works

Answer 48

1) Similarity of skill and content components (called the identical elements theory) 2) Similarity of processing requirements (called the transfer-appropriate-processing theory) Negative effects can be overcome with practice Important for the practitioner to be aware that it could cause discouragement early in practice

Question 49

Why does negative transfer occur

Answer 49

Memory representation or code that is inappropriate for the new skill Cognitive confusion

Question 50

bilateral transfer

Answer 50

Transfer of learning that involves the positive influence of previous experience performing a skill with one limb on learning or performing the same skill with a different limb

Question 51

Why Do Negative Transfer Effects Occur

Answer 51

1. Motor control system required to perform in non-preferred manner for the environmental context 2. Cognitive confusion

Question 52

Asymmetric transfer

Answer 52

Bilateral transfer in which there is a greater amount of transfer from one limb than from the other

Question 53

Symmetric transfer

Answer 53

Bilateral transfer in which the amount of transfer is similar from one limb to the other, regardless of which was used first

Question 54

cognitive reason to why biilateral transfer works

Answer 54

– knowing what to do to achieve the goal, which is relevant regardless of which limb is doing the action

Question 55

two theories of why bilateral transfer works

Answer 55

1) Cognitive – knowing what to do to achieve the goal, which is relevant regardless of which limb is doing the action 2) Motor: (a) GMP (generalized motor program – muscles as parameter, not invariant) plus dynamic pattern theory – coordination dynamics (b) transfer in the brain, demonstrated by EMG activity in non-active limbs