Exam 1 Flashcards
(248 cards)
1
Q
2 Primary Groups of Fiber Type Named By The Speed Action due to..
A
Different Myosin Atpase
Different level of Sacroplasmic Reticulum Development
2
Q
What does faster myosin removal mean?
A
Corresponds to Fast Twitch Muscles
3
Q
How does Sacroplasmic Recticulum relate to fiber type?
A
Fast twitch have better developed sacroplasmic reticulum. Calcium can be released in a wider area.
4
Q
What is stored in the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum?
A
Stores Calcium and releases it.
5
Q
Slow Twitch Muscle name?
A
Type I or
Slow Oxidated
6
Q
Fast Twitch A Name?
A
Type IIA or
Fast Oxidated Glycolytic
7
Q
Fast Twitch B Name?
A
Type IIX or
Fast Glycolytic
8
Q
How is a fiber type determined?
A
Muscle Biopsy
9
Q
What is a Muscle Biopsy?
A
Small (10-100g) piece of muscle removed. Frozen, sliced, and examined under a microscope.
10
Q
Type I Contractile Speed?
A
110 ms
11
Q
Type II Contractile Speed?
A
50 ms
12
Q
Motor Unit Force for Muscle Fibers from smallest to largest?
A
Type I < Type IIa < Type IIx
13
Q
Motor Neuron Size from Smallest to Largest?
A
Type I < Type IIa < Type IIx
14
Q
Nerve Conduction Velocity from Smallest to Largest?
A
Type I < Type IIa < Type IIx
15
Q
Type of Myosin ATPase for Type I?
A
Slowest
16
Q
Type of Myosin ATPase for Type II?
A
Fast
17
Q
SR Development for Type I?
A
Least Developed
18
Q
SR Development for Type II?
A
Highly Developed?
19
Q
Speed of Relaxation from Slowest to Fastest?
A
Type I < Type IIa < Type IIx
20
Q
Oxidative Capacity from Slowest to Fastest?
A
Type IIx < Type IIa < Type I
21
Q
Myoglobin Content from Slowest to Fastest?
A
Type IIx < Type IIa < Type I
22
Q
Color of Type I?
A
Red
23
Q
Color of Type IIa?
A
Red to Pink
24
Q
Color of Type IIx?
A
White
25
Mitochondrial Density from Lowest to Highest?
Type IIx < Type IIa < Type I
26
Capillarization (Area of Contact with Capillaries) from Lowest to Highest?
Type IIx < Type IIa < Type I
27
Glycogen Stores from Lowest to Highest?
Type I < Type IIa < Type IIx
28
Glycolytic Capacity from Lowest to Highest?
Type I < Type IIa < Type IIx
29
Fatigue Resistance from Lowest to Highest?
Type IIx < Type IIa< Type I
30
Typical Type I Fiber Make Up?
50%
31
Typical Type IIa Fiber Make Up?
25%
32
Typical Type IIx Fiber Make Up?
25%
33
Fiber Type Determinants: Genetic Factors
Determine which a-motor neurons innervate fibers and Fibers differentiate based on a-motor neuron.
34
Fiber Type Determinants: Training Factors
Can induce small changes in fiber type
35
Fiber Type Determinants: Aging
Muscles lose type II motor units. They tend to slow down with an increased risk of falling.
36
Pre-Training of Type II Fibers?
25% Type IIa and 25% Type IIx
37
Post-Training of Type II Fibers?
35% Type IIa and 15% Type IIx
38
How many Type II fibers can you change with training?
10% change from IIx to IIa
39
What is the nickname given to Type IIx fibers?
"Reservoir" Fibers
40
What percentage of Type I fibers can be converted to Type II?
Only 1-3%. Only Type IIx can be converted to Type I
41
What fiber type dominates Endurance Athletes?
Type I
42
What fiber type dominates Sprinters?
Type II
43
Other predictors of success for fiber types?
Cardiovascular Function
Motivation
Training Habits
Muscle Size
44
Graded Muscle Response
Controlling force output for a muscle organ to achieve the task at hand
45
3 Primary Mechanisms to Control Force Output?
Rate Coding within Individual Motor Units
Motor Unit Recruitment
Size Principle
46
Rate Coding Within Individual Motor Units
Send nerve signals at slow rate. Causes a twitch. We must send APs @ a fast rate. Send them until we're at a tetanus reaction. This causes Calcium to be released with more Myosin interaction.
47
Motor Unit Recruitment
Use more motor units. Keep recruiting until we get to peak force.
48
Size Prinziple
As we recruit, we get different motor units.
49
Size Principle - Which is the fastest/strongest?
Type IIx is the fastest and strongest.
50
Size Principle - What is recruited first?
Type I first (slow)
51
Size Principle - Why do we use Type IIx?
For Sprinting, Lifting. This is activated last so we don't fatigue. Take's a lot of power to turn on.
52
Where is the Central Pathway Generator Found?
Found in the Spinal Cord. Control of voluntary movements.
53
What do the Muscles and Skeleton do?
Muscle spindles are sensory receptors that let us know how to move.
54
Coactivation of Antagonistic Muscles
Normal part of movement in humans; helps control movement/
55
What does Antagonist muscle contraction improve?
Control allowing for smooth motion.
56
What happens of too much antagonist muscle contraction occurs?
WIll decrease net torque in the intended direction of movement. (Reciprocal Inhibition)
57
What is Reciprocal Inhibition?
Need to keep antagonist contraction under control to allow appropriate net torque in direction of intended movement.
58
Do muscle units need to be contracted in size order or all at one time?
Neither
59
Asynchronous Motor Unit Recruitment
Allows for relatively constant force output while allowing fibers time to rest to prolong the activity. We tend to fire different motor units @ different times. We alternate between them.
60
What type of adaptations occur first in Strength Training?
Neural Adapatations
61
How many Neural Adapatations occur in Strength Training?
Five
62
What types of Neural Adaptations occur in Strength Training?
1. Increased number of motor units recruited -> Decreased central governor
2. Increase Reciprocal Inhibition
3. Increased Synchrony of MU's
4. Increased Firing Rates
5. Decreased Autogenetic Inhibition -> GTO Sensitivity Decreased
63
Neural Adaptions - Increased # Motor Units Recruited
Body only allows access to 80% of motor units. Can increase to 88% in extreme situations.
64
Neural Adaptions - Increased Reciprocal Inhibition
Teaching other muscles to resist firing
65
Neural Adaptions - Increased Synchrony of MU's
Learning how to fire at the same time
66
Neural Adaptions - Increased Firing Rates
If they increase firing rate, they are able to then generate more foce
67
Neural Adaptions - Decreased Autogenetic Inhibition -> GTO sensitivity decreased
If the body not developed to be stronger, golgi tendon organ realizes they won't rip tendon in training and allows then to use more force.
68
When do Neural Changes occur??
2-3 months later, you'll see significant increase. Can't get bigger yet because of neurological changes
69
What are the two possible mechanisms for growth of muscle tissue?
Hypertrophy
| Hyperplasia
70
Hypertrophy
The most common, done at the end of puberty
| They take the number of cells we have and simply make them bigger.
71
HYperplasia
*Usualy doesn't happen past puberty.
| Number of cells divide and bind to similar cells.
72
Types of Muscle Hypertrophy?
Acute/Transient Hypertrophy
| Chronic Hypertrophy
73
Acute/Transient Hypertrophy
"Pump" (To get bigger muscles)
| Fluid accumulation in muscle organ
74
Chronic Hypertrophy
*Actual adaptation of increasing muscle cells.
Occurs after months of training
Increase in protein synthesis that is reversible.
75
Simple definition of Catabolism?
Energy-yielding metabolism
76
Simple definition of Anabolism?
Biosynthetic Metabolism
77
What three things can Catabolism produce?
Heat
Utilizable Energy
Metabolic Products
78
What does Utilizable Energy lead to?
ATP
79
In Anabolism, what is ATP used for
External Nutrients
Intracellular Precursor Pool
Biosynthetic Intermediates
Biopolymers
80
What physical changes occur with Muscle Cell Hypertrophy?
More Myofibrils
More Actin, Myosin Filaments
More Sacroplasm (Change it. Cells bigger so we make more)
More CT (Connect to tendon, which helps muscle growth)
81
What are the control mechanisms of muscle growth that excite protein synthesis? (1-3)
```
Activity (Can get big very easily. Resistance Training)
Growth Factors (Hormone Deficiancy)
Amino Acids (Need to build new proteins)
```
82
What are the control mechanisms of muscle growth that prohibit protein synthesis? (4-6)
SIRT1 / AMPK
High Fat Diet
Alcohol (Inhibits Muscle Growth when broken down)
Oxidation (A lot of diseases lead to inhibition)
83
What does Endurance Activities do in relation to Muscle Growth?
Running doesn't hurt this. Some people can go for runs and get msucle. It just takes a while. Extreme running inhibits muscle growth.
84
What is mTOR?
Causes a chemical response, leading to protein synthesis.
85
What does 1-5 reps focus on?
Increase neuromuscular efficiency
86
What does 6-8 reps focus on?
Myofibilar Hypertrophy
87
What does 9-15 reps focus on?
Sacroplasmic Hypertrophy
88
Hypertrophy Training
Typically >65% of 1RM
Focuses on ~90 b/w sets
Eccentric Loading (What causes damage to muscles)
Failure? (We need to fatigue all muscles)
89
What does Resistance Training do to protein synthesis?
Increases it
90
How many grams of protein needed after resistance exercise for muscle growth?
20-25 grams/
91
How many grams of protein needed for increasing muscle masss?
1.6-1.7 grams protein / kg body weight / day
92
Whats the recommendation for protein synthesis?
Small doses (20g) every 2-3 hours
93
Causes of DOMS?
```
Structural Damage
Chemical Mediators (Inflammatory makers)
```
94
How can you cope with DOMS?
Limit eccentric contractions when starting training
Start low intensity and progress (muscles are new)
Ice/Rolling Out/Massage (try for yourself)
95
DOMS - Anti-Inflammatories
May reduce swelling therefore DOMS
May interfere with recovery/adaptation
This is a sign of repair occurring in the muscles
96
What contains larger glycogen storese?
Type II
97
What has slower myosin ATPase?
Type I
98
What contains larger amount of myoglobin?
Type I
99
What contains a smaller fiber diameter?
Type I
100
What has a lower oxidative energy production capacity?
Type II
101
What is the most fatigue resistant?
Type I
102
What is the maximum percentage of total skeletal muscles fibers that can be converted from Type IIx fibers to type IIa with training?
10
103
An increase in the number of excitatory signals sent per second in a motor unit leading to greater force output
Rate Coding
104
Activating multiple motor units to produce greater forces
Motor Unit Recruitment
105
Activating motor units in s sequential order from slow to fast twitch fibers as greater force is required
Size Principle
106
(T/F) The average human fibers total type distribution is 50% Type IIa and 50% Type IIx
False
107
____ fibers are recruited first due to the ___ size of the cell body of the alpha motor neuron in the motor unit
Type I, Smaller
108
An inhibitory graded potential can make cells more negative due to
Potassium leaving the cell, chloride entering the cell
109
Strength gains observed in the first month of training can be attributed to all of the following EXCEPT:
Increase in the total number of motor units recruited
Decrease in Reciprocal Inhibition
Increase motor unit synchrony
Decrease in Autogenic Inhibition
Decrease in Reciprocal Inhibition
110
(T/F) Motor units are fired asynchronously during prolonged low intensity activities in order to limit fatigue of muscle fibers
True
111
How long does Phosphocreatine last for?
10-15 seconds
112
How long does Anaerobic Glycolysis last for?
1-2 minutes
113
How long does Aerobic Metabolism of Fats last for?
Hours
114
How long does Aerobic Metabolism of Carbohydrates last for?
~ 90 minutes
115
Which of the following is a rate limiting enzyme as well as the only enzyme needed to complete ATP production in its energy pathway?
Creatine Kinase
116
What is the net number of ATP produced by the enzymes of anaerobic glycolysis when metabolizing 1 glucose molecule?
2
117
Where do humans house the vast majority of carbohydrate stores?
Muscle
118
Where in the cell are Kreb's cycle enzymes located?
Mitochronidra
119
The difference in contraction velocity between Type I and Type II fibers is attributed, in part, to which of the follow __
Different ATPase
120
(T/F) Type I fibers have a more developed sarcoplasmic reticulum which allows calcium to spread through sacromere faster, in turn making this fiber type faster than other fiber types
False
121
The Margaria - Kalamen Test involves which motion?
Stair running
122
Which of the three tests takes the longest to compete?
Winggate Anaerbic Test
Vertical Jump
Margaria - Kalamen
Wingate Anaerobic Test
123
(T/F) The power output achieved during a Wingate test represents a participants aerobic power
False
124
What is the mode of exercise used for the Forestry Exercise Test?
Stepping
125
In the Forestry and Astrand Tests, what is the common physiological variable that is directly measured?
HR
126
(T/f) The Astrand Cycling Test is a shorter more intense test than the Wingate Cycling Test
False
127
Where are Carbohydrates primarily stored?
Muscle Glycogen
128
Where are Fats primarily stored?
Subcutaneous and Visceral
129
What are carbohydrates converted to?
Glucose
130
Energy of Carbohydrates?
4.1 kcal/g
131
Whats the main purpose of Carbohydrates?
Primary ATP substrate for muscles, brain
132
Where is extra glucose stored?
Stored as Glycogen in liver, muscles
133
Glycogen store limits?
2,500 kcal. Must rely on dietary carbohydrates to replenish
134
Fats main thing?
Efficient Substrate, Efficient Storage
135
Energy of Fats?
9.4 kcal/g
136
What are Fats used for?
Energy substrate for prolonged, less intense exercise.
137
ATP - Fats
High net ATP yeild but slow ATP production
138
Fats - Broken down into
Must be broken down into free fatty acids (FFAs) and Glycerol
139
Fats- What's used to make ATP?
FFAs only used to make ATP
140
Protein basic description?
Energy substrate during starvation
141
Protein Energy Conversion?
4.1 kcal/g. Must be converted into another form to be used in energy production.
142
What can Protein be converted into?
Glcose (When needed)
| FFAs (Lipogenesis) (For energy storage and celllar energy substrate)
143
What is a Rate Limiting Enzymes?
Control the rate of enzymatic energy pathways
144
What can Rate Limiting Enzymes do?
Can create bottleneck at an early step
Activey influenced by negative feedback
Slows overall reaction, prevents runaway reaction
145
How much ATP is stored?
Only for a few seconds of energy
146
Three ATP Synthesis Pathways?
```
ATP-PCr System (Anaerobic Metabolism)
Glycolytic System (Anaerobic Metabolism)
Oxidative System (Aerobic Metabolism)
```
147
ATP-PCr System name and description?
Phospho-Creatine System
| Anaerobic, Substrate Level Metabolism
148
ATP-PCr ATP Yield?
1 ATP : 1 PCr
149
ATP-PCr Duration?
10-15 seconds
150
What is ATP-PCr used for?
To quickly restore ATP production
151
Where does ATP-PCr occur?
In the cytoplasm
152
PCr Rate Limiting Enzyme?
Creatine Kinase controls rate of ATP production; a negative feedback system
153
What does Creatine Kinase do?
Decrease ATP (Increase ADP) --> Increase CK Activity
Increase ATP --> Decrease CK Activity
154
How is ATP-PCr formed?
Phosphate stolen from Creatine and Attaches to ADP
155
PCr Byproducts?
Creatine and ATP
156
How much weight put on in first couple weeks because of Pcr?
6-8 lbs, mainly water weight
157
What happens when exercising with PCr?
More creaine means PCr will be raised higher, allowing the duration to last longer while slowly depleting ATP as well.
158
What type of reaction is the Glycolytic System?
Anaerobic?
159
Glycolytic System ATP yield
2-3 mol ATP / 1 mol Substrate
160
Glycolytic System Duration
15s - 2 min (1 min - 2 min in healthy individuals)
161
Glycolytic System Breakdown?
Breakdown of Glucose (2 ATP) or Glycogen (3 ATP) via Glycolsys
162
How many enzymes involves in Glycolytic System?
10-12 Enzymes
163
Glycolysis Rate Limiting Enzyme?
Phosphofructokinase (PFK)
164
What does Phosphofructokinase do?
Decrease ATP (Increase ADP) --> Increase PFK Activity
Increase ATP --> Decrease PFK Activity
Regulated by products of Krebs Cycle
165
By products of Glycolytic System?
2-3 ATP
2 Pyruvate (Aerobic Continues ON)
2 Lactate + H+ (anaerobic)
166
What are the fates of Lactate?
Taken into Mitochondria
Release from cells to be used by other cells
Release from cell and taken up by liver sent through gluconeogensis
167
Pros of Glycolysis?
Allows muscles to contract when O2 is limited
Permits shorter-term, higher-intensity exercise than oxidative metabolism can sustain
168
Cons of Glycolysis?
Low ATP yield, inefficicent use of substrate
Lack of O2 converts pyruvic acid to lactic acid
H+ impairs glycolysis, muscle contraction
169
Why do we produce Lactate?
Produced to allow NAD to be recycled, allowing glycolysis to continue.
170
Aerobic Energy Production begins with ATP production from....
Fats
171
What kinda of reaction is Oxidative Metabolism?
Aerobic
172
Oxidative Metabolism - ATB Yield
Per Glucose: 32-33 ATP
| Per FFA: 100+ ATP
173
Oxidative Metabolism Duration
Steady supply for hours
174
How complex is Oxidative Metabolism?
Most complex of three bio-energetic systems
175
Where does Oxidative Metabolism occur?
Occurs in the Mitochondria, not cytoplasm
176
Krebs Cycle First Step?
1 Molecule Glucose = 2 Acetyl - CoA
| 1 Molecule Glucose -> 2 Complete Krebs Cycles
177
Kreb Cycle Produces
2 Acetyl-CoA -> 2 GTP -> 2 ATP
NADH, FADH, H+
178
Kreb Cycle; What of too many H+ in cell?
Too Acidic
179
Kreb Cycle; Where is H+ moved to?
Electron TRansport Chain
180
Kreb Cycle: H+ and Electrons carried to and how?
ETC via NADH, FADH molecules
181
What happens as H+ and electrons travel down the chain?
H+ combines with O2 (Neutralized, forms H20)
Electrons + O2 Help Form ATP
182
ETC: ATP per NADH?
2.5
183
ETC: ATP per FADH?
1.5
184
Total ATP Yield from Aerobic Breakdown of Carbohydrates?
1 Glucose = 32 ATP
1 Glycogen = 33 ATP
185
Rate Limiting Enzyme for all Oxidative Cycles?
Isocitrate Dehhydrogenease
Similar to PFK for Glycolysis. Inhibited by ATP, Activated by ADP. Regulates Krebs and ETC
186
FInal byproducts of aerobic CHO Metabolism?
ATP, H20, CO2
Other byproducts is recycled and used in next Kreb cycle turn.
187
Fat Metabolism Basic Information
Features Triglycerides: Major Fat Energy Source
188
Fat Metabolism: What are Triglycerides broken into?
1 Glycerol and 3 FFAs
Lipolysis carried out by lipases
189
Yield for Fat Metabolism?
Yields ~3 to 4 times more ATP than Glucose.
190
Is Fat Metabolism slower than Glucose Oxidation?
Yes
191
How is Fatty Acid Transported into the Mitochondria?
By using membrane transporter to enter the muscle cell where it is activated. Combines with carnitine to enter the mitochondria.
192
What is Beta Oxidation?
Process of converting FFAs to Acetyl-CoA before entering Krebs Cycle
193
Cost of Beta Oxidation to start?
2 ATP
194
Beta Oxidation: How much does 16-carbon FFA yield?
8 acetyl-CoA
195
Beta Oxidation: How much does 1 glucose yield?
2 acetyl-CoA
196
Beta Oxidation: What does Fat Oxidation requires?
Requires more O2 but yields far more ATP later.
197
Total ATP yield from Oxidation of 16 carbon fatty acid?
116 ATP
198
Beta Oxidation Rate Limit?
Limited by FFA Availability in musclce and Kreb's Speed
199
All three Energy Systems interact for all activities but...
not one system contributes 100% but one system often dominates for a given task.
200
Byproducts of one system can.......
affect another systems function. Citrate produced in the Krebs cycle can inhibit PFK and slow glycolysis sparing muscle glycogen.
201
Order of Maximal Rate of ATP Generation?
Fat Oxidation < CHO Oxidation < Glycolysis < PCr
202
Order of Maximal Available Energy?
PCr < Glycolysis < CHO Oxidation < Fat Oxidation
203
Oxygen Consumption Abbrevition?
VO2 - Volume of Oxygen Consumed
204
Rate of Oxygen Consumed by the body
Typically reported as an amount per minute.
205
Absolute Oxygen Consumption
Oxygen consumed per min (L/min)
206
Relative Oxygen Consumption
Oxygen consumed per minute relative to body mass (ml/kg/min)
207
VO2 Max
(Plateau) Max rate of oxygen consumption
Point at which O2 consumption doesn't increase with further increase in intensity
208
VO2 Peak
(No Plateau)
Highest measurement of VO2 with no observable plateau. They could drop off after they reach the peak.
209
How much Relative VO2 Max consumed depends on Ab. VO2 and Body Mass. How do you know if you have a good amount burned?
The individual who burns a higher amount per ml/kg/min.
210
VO2 Max Norms for Average Fit
Male - 45 ml/kg/min
| Female - 40 ml/kg/min
211
VO2 Max Norms for Elite
Male - >70 ml/kg/min
| Female - >60 ml/kg/min
212
VO2 Max for Couch Potato
= 30 ml/kg/min
213
VO2 Max for End Stage COPD
~15 ml/kg/min
214
Order from highest to lowest VO2
Running
Cycling
Cross Country Skiing
Cross Country Skiing
Running
Cycling
215
What is the Lactate Threshold (LT)?
Point/Intensity at which blood lactate accumulation increases markedly.
Lactate production rate > Lactate Clearance Rate.
216
Lactate Threshold Interaction between
Aerobic and Anaerobic Systems. Formally called the anaerobic threshold.
Measure of anaerobic threshold.
217
Lactate Threshold usually expressed as ..
percentage of VO2 Max
218
Lactate Threshold for Training and Untrained
Untrained - 55-65% of VO2 Max
| Trained - 80-90% of VO2 Max
219
How much can VO2max increase in untrained?
15-20%
220
Training Effects on Vo2 MAx and LT affected by
Genetics (Amount of Type I)
Weight at Start of Training
Initial Fitness
221
Causes of increase for VO2max and LT
```
Increase Oxidative Enzymes
Increase Mitochondrial Content and Density
Increase Capillary Density
Increase Myoglobin Content
Conversion of Type IIx to Type IIa
```
222
Lactate threshold can increase to
90% of VO2 Max
223
Causes of increases for Lactate?
Increase Oxidative Capacity (Increase oxidative enzymes and increase mitochondrial content and density)
Increase number of transporter around body
224
PhosphoCreatine Alternative Name
Creatine Phosphate
225
Glycolysis Alternative Name
Anaerobic Glycolysis
226
Oxidative Alternative Name
Aerobic Metabolism
227
PhosphoCreatine Substrate/Fuel Entering Pathway
Phosphocreatine
228
Glycolysis Substrate / Fuel Entering Pathway
Glucose
| Glycogen
229
Oxidative Substrate / Fuel Entering Pathway from Glycolysis
Pyruvate/Lactate
| Acetyl CoA, NADH
230
Oxidative Substrate / Fuel Entering Pathway from Beta Oxidation
Acetyl CoA
| NADH & FADH
231
PhosphoCreatine Relative Speed of ATP Production
Fastest
232
Glycolysis Relative Speed of ATP Production
~ 2 Times slower the PCr
233
Oxidative Relative Speed of ATP Production
4-7 Times Slower than PCr
234
Phosphocreatine By-Products
ATP
| Creatine
235
Glycolysis By-Products
ATP
| Pyruvate & NADH/Lactate + H+
236
OxidativeBy-Products
ATP
H20
CO2
Recycled Intermediate
237
Phosphocreatine Location of Pathway Within Cell
Cytosol
238
Glycolysis Location of Pathway Within Cell
Cytosol
239
Oxidative Location of Pathway Within Cell
Mitochondria
240
PhosphoCreatine Time Limit
~10-15 seconds
241
Glycolysis Time Limit
~1-2 minutes
242
Oxidative Time Limit
Hours
243
PhosphoCreatine Control Of Rate
Increase Rate means Decrease ATP
And Vice Versa
244
Glycolysis Control of Rate
Increase Rate means Decrease ATP
And Vice Versa
245
Oxidative Control of Rate
Increase Rate means Decrease ATP
And Vice Versa
246
PhosphoCreatine Rate Limiting Enzyme
Creatine Kinase
247
Glycolysis Rate Limiting Enzyme
Phosphofructokinase
248
OXidative Rate Limiting Enzyme
Isocitrate Dehydrogenase
