Exam 1 Flashcards
(194 cards)
1
Q
anatomy
A
the study of the structure of the body and its relationships to one another
2
Q
physiology
A
study of the function of the body
3
Q
principle of complementarity of structure and function
A
structures always determine the function
4
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biological levels of the organization
A
atoms molecules organelles cells tissues organs organ system organism
5
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8 characteristics of life
A
maintaining boundaries movement responsiveness digestion metabolism excretions reproduction growth
6
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maintaining boundaries
A
cell membranes
integument
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movement
A
propelling the body
propelling through the internal organs
8
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responsiveness
A
ability to sense stimuli and respond
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digestion
A
breaking down food for absorption
10
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metabolism
A
the sum of all chemical reactions in the body
11
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excretion
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releasing wastes from the body
12
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reproduction
A
cellular or organismal
13
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growth
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increase the number of cells
increase the size of cells
14
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integumentary system
A
skin
forms a boundary around the body
15
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muscular and skeletal systems
A
provides support and body movement
16
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respiratory system
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exchange of gases
17
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digestive system
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takes in nutrients and eliminates wastes
18
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urinary system
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removal of wastes and water balance
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reproductive system
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produces egg and sperm
20
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circulatory system
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distributes materials
21
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nervous and endocrine systems
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coordinate body functions
22
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immune system
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protect the interior of the body from foreign invaders
23
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homeostasis
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maintaining a stable internal environment despite external conditions
24
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what happens when homeostasis is lost
A
disease or death
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afferent pathway
toward CNS
| sensory neuron
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efferent pathway
away from CNS
| motor neuron
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negative feedback loops
most common
keep system near the set point
change in one direction causes a response in the opposite direction
ex: body temp
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positive feedback loop
reinforced the stimulus
requires an outside stimulus to stop response
ex: labor
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intracellular fluid
the fluid inside the cells
| contains a high concentration of potassium and proteins
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extracellular fluid
plasma
| high concentrations of Na, Ca, and Cl
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stimulus
any change in the variable away from the setpoint
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receptor
recognizes the change
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control center
brain or spinal cord
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effector
carry out the response
| almost always a gland or muscle
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anatomical position
head, feet, and palms facing forward while standing upright
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frontal plane
front and back
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sagittal plane
right and left
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midsagittal
symmetrical right and left
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transverse
top and bottom
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superior
toward the head
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inferior
away from the head
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ventral/anterior
toward the front
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dorsal/posterior
toward the back
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medial
toward the midline
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lateral
away from the midline
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proximal
closer to point of attachment
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distal
further away from the point of attachment
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superficial
toward the body surface
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deep
away from the body surface
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ventral body cavities
thoracic
| abdominopelvic
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thoracic cavity
pleural (lungs)
medistinum (sternum)
peridcardial (heart)
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abdominopelvic cavity
abdominal
| pelvic
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dorsal body cavity
cranial
| vertebral
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lumens
holes
extension of the external environment in the digestive tract
only part of the internal environment after material crosses the wall of the organ
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cutaneous membrane
skin
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mucous membrane
lines body cavities that open to the exterior
| lubricated with mucus
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serous membranes
double-layered membranes separated by a fluid-filled cavity
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three components have in common
carbon
hydrogen
oxygen
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4 categories of biomolecules
carbohydrates
lipids
proteins
nucleotides
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a general formula for a carb
C6H12O6
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monosaccharide
5 or 6 carbon sugars
can be transported across cell membranes
ribose, deoxyribose, glucose, galactose, fructose
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disaccharide
double sugars formed via dehydration synthesis
| sucrose, lactose, maltose
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glucose + fructose =
sucrose
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glucose + galactose =
lactose
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glucose + glucose =
maltose
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polysaccharides
long continuous strains of carbon
glycogen
starch
cellulose
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glycogen
the storage form of glucose in animals
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starch
the storage form of glucose in plants
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cellulose
structural carb in plants
indigestible
fiber
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dehydration synthesis
H from one monomer binds to OH of another monomer and water is lost
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hydrolysis
water is added back into the reaction
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lipid
made of C, H, and O
| non-polar and not water-soluble
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4 types of fats
triglycerides
phospholipids
steroids
eicosanoids
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triglycerides
```
glycerol backbone
3 fatty acid tails
energy storage
insulation
cushioning
```
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saturated
contains only single covalent bonds
| fats that are solid at room temp
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unsaturated
one or more double covalent bonds
| liquids at room temp
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phospholipids
modified triglycerides with a phosphate group and 2 fatty acid tails
amphipathic
create the phospholipid bilayer
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steroids
4-linked carbon rings
cholesterol
stabilizes cell membranes
required for vitamin D synthesis and production of bile salts
79
eicosanoids
```
modified 20-C fatty acids
blood clotting
inflammation
smooth muscle contractions
blocked by NSAIDs (ibuprofen)
```
80
proteins
```
polymers of amino acids
mechanical support
enzymes
transport
contractile
communication
defensive
```
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primary protein
strand of amino acids
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secondary protein
alpha helix
| beta-sheet
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tertiary protein
3D shape
| collagen or keratin
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quarternary protein
several chains associating with one another
| hemoglobin
85
structure of a nucleotide
phosphate group
5-carbon sugar
nitrogenous base
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ATP
energy currency of the body
| adenosine triphosphate
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ADP
adenosine diphosphate
can become ATP via dehydration synthesis
requires ATPsynthase
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ADP
adenosine diphosphate
can become ATP via dehydration synthesis
requires ATP synthase
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cyclic AMP (cAMP)
important signal molecules between ICF and ECF
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DNA
```
deoxyribose
double-stranded
A, T, C, G
genetic info
in the nucleus
```
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RNA
```
ribose
single-stranded
A, U, C, G
codes for protein synthesis
in the nucleus and cytoplasm
```
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solvent
liquids that dissolve a solute
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solutes
molecules that dissolve in a solvent
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solution
solutes and solvents together
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solubility
the degree to which a solute is able to dissolve into a solvent
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hydrophilic
dissolve easily in water
| polar or ionic
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hydrophobic
do not dissolve in water
non-polar
lipids
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pH
the concentration of H ions in solution determines the acidity
H comes from the separation of water
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pH scale
7 is neutral
above 7 is basic
below 7 is acidic
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acids
molecules that release H when they dissolve in water
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base
molecules decrease the concentration of H by combining with free H, dissociate water to yield OH
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buffers
substances that resist change in pH
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glycoproteins
cell-cell recognition
| attachment to the cytoskeleton
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enzymes role in metabolism
speeds up reactions without themselves being altered
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mechanism of action by an enzyme
decrease the activation energy of a system by
ligand attaches to the enzyme at the active site
enzyme-substrate complex formed
the enzyme catalyzes the reaction and transforms substrates into products
enzyme detaches and goes to catalyze another
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fibrous proteins
pleated sheets or long-chain helices
insoluble in water
structural
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globular proteins
spherical
water-soluble
carriers, enzymes, hormones, neurotransmitters, antibodies
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specificity of proteins
lock and key fit
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affinity of proteins
the degree to which a protein is attracted to a ligand
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activation of proteins
have to be acted on by an enzyme or cofactor
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denaturation of proteins
loss of structure thus loss of function
| caused by the increase in temp or decrease in pH
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upregulation of proteins
programmed production of new proteins
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downregulation of proteins
programmed removal of proteins
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saturation of proetins
once all proteins are bound to ligands the cell response rate is constant
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three components that make up a generalized composite cell
cell membrane
nucleus
cytoplasm
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lipoprotein
transport fatty acids and cholesterol in the bloodstream
| HDLs and LDLs
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glycolipids
component of the cell membrane
| cell recognition and of foreign cells
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functions of plasma membrane
physical isolation: separating ICF from ECF
regulation of exchange with the environment: controls entry
communication between cells and the environment: receptor proteins
structural support: hold cytoskeleton in place
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fluid mosaic model
membrane lipids: phospholipid bilayer
membrane proteins
membrane carbs
intercellular junctions
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phospholipid bilayer
polar heads
non-polar tails
cholesterol makes membrane impermeable to small water-soluble molecules and stiffens the molecule
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integral proteins
transporters
carriers
receptors
enzymes
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peripheral proteins
attach to one side of the membrane
| glycoproteins: cell to cell joining
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membrane carbs
attach to proteins or lipids
only on the external surface
immune response
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gap junctions
cytoplasmic bridges between cells
chemical and electrical communication
heart and smooth muscle
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tight junctions
cell membranes of cells partly fuse together
| inhibits movement of material between cells
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desmosomes
adhesion junctions
provide structural adhesion
found in the skin. uterus. heart
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selectively permeable membrane
determines which substances can enter or exit the cell
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semi-permeable cell membrane
allows small, water-soluble molecules to pass
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differentially permeable cell membrane
only small molecules can pass through
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microtubules
```
made up of tubulin
determine the shape of the cell
use arms to move organelles
centrioles
cilia
flagella
```
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microfilaments
```
responsible for motility or changes in cells shape
forms cleavage furrows
endocytosis/exocytosis
contractile forces
stiffen microvilli
```
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intermediate filaments
resist pulling forces on the cell
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cell adhesion molecules
```
thousands on virtually every cell
molecular velcro
arms that migrating cells use to move past one another
signal WBCs to infected areas
mechanoreceptor
```
134
cilia
numerous hair-like projections of the cell membrane
responsible for moving material past a cell
respiratory passageway
135
flagella
singular whip-like projection of the cell membrane
move the entire cell
sperm
136
mitochondria
kidney bean-shaped, double-walled organelle
| site of ATP production via aerobic cellular respiration
137
endoplasmic reticulum
the network of membrane tubes extending from the outer membrane of the nucleus
functions in synthesis, storage, and transport
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rough ER
studded with ribosomes
| site of protein synthesis
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smooth ER
lacks ribosomes
site of fatty acid, steroid, lipid synthesis
detoxify or inactivates drugs in the liver and kidneys
stores Ca in muscle cells
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Golgi apparatus
stack of membrane-bound sacks
receives proteins from the RER, modifies them, and packages them for export from the cell
the cells UPS
141
lysosomes
garbage disposals
| small spherical storage vesicles that contain hydrolytic enzymes
142
peroxisomes
storage vesicles that detoxify
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nucleus
contains the DNA of the cell
| surrounded by a nuclear envelope
144
nucleoli
dense body of RNA in the nucleus
| responsible for creating RNA fro ribosomes
145
diffusion
movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
occurs along a concentration gradient until equilibrium
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passive transport
uses kinetic energy (no ATP)
concentration gradient
semi-permeable membrane
like dissolves like
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active transport
requires ATP
| molecules move against a concentration gradient
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what molecules can pass through a membrane via simple diffusion
non-polar, lipid-soluble molecules
149
rate of diffusion is faster if
```
membranes surface area is larger
membrane is thinner
the concentration gradient is larger
the membrane is more permeable to the molecule
temperature is increased
molecular size is smaller
```
150
what facotrs afftec membrane permeability
molecules lipid solubility
molecules size
lipid composition of the membrane
151
what type of molecules move via channels
molecules that are lipophobic or electrically charged
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carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion
the substrate binds with protein and carries it across the membrane by changing shape
glucose, amino acids, large lipids, insoluble molecules
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channel-mediated facilitated diffusion
membrane-spanning proteins that allow movement of water or ions
specific due to pore size and charge of amino acids lining the channels
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leakage channels
always open and allow free movement
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gated channels
mostly closed
| require a stimulus to open
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chemically gated channel
require extracellular ligan to open
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voltage-gated channels
opens in response to a change in voltage across the cell
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mechanically gated channels
opens due to a physical change that puts stress on the channel to pop it open
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osmosis
net diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane
water will move to the side with the most OAPs to create osmotic pressure
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osmotically active particles (OAPs)
solutes that do not diffuse through the membrane
161
carrier protein
bind to a substance and move it across the membrane
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what molecules use carrier proteins
sugars, amino acids, nucleosides
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osmotic pressure
the tendency of water to move into a cell via osmosis
164
hydrostatic pressure
the pressure exerted by water against the cell membrane
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tonicity
the measure of solutions ability to change cell shape by promoting osmosis
166
isotonic
the same concentration of OAPs in solution as in the cell
no change in cell size or shape
net osmosis = 0
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hypertonic
a higher concentration of OAPs in solution than in the cell
| the cell will shrink (crenate)
168
hypotonic
lower concentration of OAPs
| cell swell and lyse
169
filtration
the substance is forces across a membrane by a hydrostatic pressure gradient
the passive process must have a pressure gradient
important in capillaries
the only restriction is the size
170
primary active transport
energy is supplied by hydrolysis of ATP resulting in phosphorylation of the transport protein
Na, K, and ATPase
one ATP moves 3 Na out and 2 K in
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secondary active transport
a gradient created by primary pumps that store energy
along concentration gradient
molecules are co-transported
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symport carrier
movement in the same direction
| Na - glucose
173
antiport carrier
movement in different directions
| Na - H pump
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vesicular transport
uses membrane-bound vesicles to move bulk substance into or out of the cell
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endocytosis
movement of material into the cell
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process of endocytosis
clathrin-coated pit ingests substances
vesicle detaches from membrane
clathrin proteins recycle back to the membrane
vesicles fuse with lysosomes for digestion
excess material is removed via transcytosis
177
types of endocytosis
phagocytosis
pinocytosis
receptor-mediated endocytosis
178
phagocytosis
cell eating
endocytosis of large, solid material
carried out by WBCs (macrophages)
179
pinocytosis
cell drinking
| nonspecific process moving ECF into the cell
180
receptor-mediated endocytosis
the specific ligand binds to a receptor to initiate the process
181
exocytosis
movement of material out of the cell
182
process of exocytosis
signal-ligand binding to a receptor or change in membrane voltage
vesicle migrate towards the cell membrane
proteins at the vesicle surface (v-snares) bind with plasma membrane proteins (t-snares)
vesicles and plasma membrane fuse and pore opens
releases the content into the ECF
183
resting membrane potential
voltage (electrical potential energy due to the separation of - and + charges) across the plasma membrane
ranges from -50 to -100
inside the cell is negative
outside the cell is positive
184
generating resting membrane potential
main ions involved are K and Na
K leakage channels along the membrane
K diffuses out of the cell along the electrochemical gradient
protein molecules remain in the cell because they are too large
loss of positive charge leaves the inside of the cell negative and outside becomes positive
the overall voltage of -70
185
how is membrane potential maintained
because at rest some K diffuses out and some Na diffuses in, equilibrium would be reached only with passive forces
3 Na in and 2 K out
186
g-protein-coupled receptor mechanism
ligand (first messenger) binds to the receptor
receptor changes shape and activated the cascade
the activated receptor binds to nearby g-protein
g-protein is activated when GTP replaces GDP
g-protein mobilizes and binds to an enzyme embedded in the plasma membrane
the activated enzymes catalyze a reaction to produce a second messenger (cAMP or Ca)
2nd messenger activates enzymes to open ion channels
kinase enzymes active other enzymes by phosphorylation them and causing biological cascades
187
cytoplasm
contains all material inside the cell membrane except the nucleus
188
cytosol
ICF, semi-gelatinous material
| dissolves nutrients, proteins, ions, and waste products
189
interphase
preceded mitosis
| period of DNA replication and cell growth
190
mitosis
nuclear division
191
prophase
chromatin condenses
nucleus fragments
spindle apparatus forms
192
metaphase
chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate
193
anaphase
sister chromatids are pulled to opposite sides of the cell
| cytokinesis begins
194
telophase
chromatin uncoils
nucleus reforms
spindle apparatus disassembles
