Final Exam Flashcards
(227 cards)
1
Q
homeostasis
A
maintaining a stable internal environment despite external conditions
2
Q
components of feedback systems
A
stimulus, receptor, afferent pathway, control center, efferent pathway, effector
3
Q
negative feedback
A
most common
keep the system near its set point
change in one direction causes a response opposite that direction
temperature, blood Ca+2 levels, BP
4
Q
positive feedback system
A
not homeostatic
response reinforced the stimulus
requires an outside stimulus to stop the response
labor and childbirth, blood clotting
5
Q
ventral body cavities
A
thoracic and abdominopelvic cavity
6
Q
dorsal body cavity
A
cranial and vertebral cavity
7
Q
thoracic cavity
A
pleural cavity
mediastinum (pericardial)
8
Q
abdominopelvic cavity
A
abdominal and pelvic cavity
9
Q
frontal plane
A
front and back
10
Q
sagittal plane
A
right and left
11
Q
midsagittal
A
symmetrical right and left
12
Q
transverse plane
A
top and bottom
13
Q
superior
A
toward the head
14
Q
inferior
A
away from the head
15
Q
ventral/anterior
A
toward the front
16
Q
dorsal/posterior
A
toward the back
17
Q
medial
A
toward the midline
18
Q
lateral
A
away from the midline
19
Q
proximal
A
close to the point of attachment
20
Q
distal
A
further from the point of attachment
21
Q
superficial
A
towards the body surface
22
Q
deep
A
away from the body surface
23
Q
3 elements of biomolecules
A
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
24
Q
4 biomolecules
A
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleotides
25
carbohydrates
most abundant
glucose C6H12O6
monosaccharides-simple sugars; 5-6 carbons
-ribose, deoxyribose, glucose, galactose, fructose
disaccharides-double sugars via dehydration synthesis
-sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (glucose + galactose), maltose (glucose + glucose)
polysaccharide- glycogen, starch, cellulose
fuels ATP production
cell-cell recognition
structural
26
lipids
non-polar and not water-soluble
| triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, eicosanoids
27
triglycerides
glycerol backbone with 3 fatty acid tails
saturate-contain only single covalent bonds, fats are solids at room temp
unsaturated-1+ double covalent bonds, liquids at room temp
energy storage, insulation, cushioning
28
phospholipids
modified triglycerides with phosphate and 2 fatty acid tails
amphipathic, heads are hydrophilic and tails are hydrophobic
create phospholipids bilayer
29
steroids
```
4-linked carbon rings
cholesterol-most important
stabilize cell membranes
required for vitamin D synthesis
steroid hormones
required for the production of bile salts
```
30
eicosanoids
modified 20-carbon fatty acids
thromboxanes-blood clotting
leukotrienes-inflammation
prostaglandins-smooth muscle contractions
31
proteins
```
polymers of amino acids
primary-strands
secondary-alpha helix or beta-sheet
tertiary-3D shape
quarternary-several chains together
structural-mechanical support
enzymes
transport, contractile, communication, defensive
```
32
enzymes
biological catalysts
speed up reactions without themselves being altered
decreases activation energy of a system
substrate (ligand) binds to the active site, catalyzes, and forms products
33
nucleotides
phosphate group, 5-carbon, base
| ATP, ADP, cAMP, DNA, RNA
34
DNA
```
deoxyribose
double-stranded
A, T, C, G
genetic information
in the nucleus
```
35
RNA
```
ribose
single-stranded
A, U, G, C
codes for protein synthesis
in the nucleus and cytoplasm
```
36
diffusion
movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
does not require ATP
occurs along a concentration gradient
continues until equilibrium
takes place across a semi-permeable membrane
37
factors affecting diffusion
molecules lipid solubility
molecules size
lipid composition of the membrane
38
rate of diffusion is faster if
```
membrane surface area is larger
membrane is thinner
concentration gradient is larger
the membrane is permeable to the molecule
temperature is increase
molecular size is smaller
```
39
osmosis
net diffusion of a solvent (water) through a selectively permeable membrane
water will move to the side with the most OAPs
-osmotically active particles-nonpenetrating solutes
-does not diffuse thru the membrane
40
tonicity
a measure of solutions ability to change cell shape by promoting osmosis
isotonic-same concentration of OAPs in solution and in the cell, no shape change
hypertonic-more OAPs in solution than the cell, water leaves the cell, the cell will shrink
hypotonic-less OAPs in solution than the cell, water enters the cell, the cell will swell and lyse
41
active transport processes
requires ATP
molecules being moved against a concentration gradient
primary active, secondary active, vesicular transport
42
primary active transport
sodium-potassium pump
| 3 Na move out and 2 K move in
43
secondary active transport (cotransport)
gradients created by primary pumps store energy
as particles leak back into their original position they drag other substances with them
symport-move in the same direction (Na and glucose)
antiport-opposite direction (Na and K pump)
44
vesicular transport
use membrane-bound vesicles to move bulk substances into or out of the cell
endocytosis-movement of material into the cell
-phagocytosis-cell eating
-pinocytosis-cell drinking
exocytosis-movement of material out of the cell
45
phospholipid bilayer anatomy
polar heads
non-polar tails
cholesterol in between makes the membrane impermeable
-stiffens the molecule
46
semi-permeable
allows only certain substance to pass
non-polar moves via simple diffusion
polar move with proteins
47
mitosis
parent cell divides into 2 identical daughter cells
prophase-chromatin condenses nucleus fragments, spindle apparatus forms
metaphase-chromosomes line up in the middle
anaphase-sister chromatids are pulled to opposite sides, cytokinesis begins
telophase-chromatin uncoils, nucleus reforms, spindle apparatus disappears
48
epithelia
```
line free surface of the body
any substance entering or leaving the body must cross this
cellular, little matrix, avascular
anchored via basement membrane
leaky and tight
```
49
simple squamous location
blood vessel,s heart
50
simple cuboidal location
kidney tubules, glands and their ducts, thyroid
51
simple columnar location
lines GI tract
52
pseudostratified ciliated columnar location
respiratory passageway
53
stratified squamous keratinized location
epidermis of skin
54
stratified squamous non-keratinized location
mouth, esophagus, vagina, anus
55
transitional location
bladder, uterus, urethra
56
stratified cuboidal location
sweat, mammary, and ovarian follicles
57
connective tissue
extensive extracellular matrix with widely scattered cells that secrete and modify the matrix
58
collagen
most abundant CT
| flexible but inelastic
59
elastin
allows stretching and recoil
60
reticular
thin, short, branching collagen fibers
61
areolar CT
loose CT
lots of matrices
fibroblasts, macrophages
forms lamina propria, packages organs, surrounds capillaries
62
adipose CT
loose CT
little matrix, lots of cells, highly vascular
triglyceride storage, insulation, supports and protects organs
63
reticular CT
loose CT
network of reticular fibers and reticulocytes
forms stroma for soft organs
lymph nodes, spleen, red bone marrow
64
dense regular CT
parallel bundles of collagen with little ground substance
resists pulling forces
ligaments and tendons
65
dense irregular CT
fibers run in many places
| the dermis of the skin and joint capsules
66
hyaline cartilage
most abundant
supportive, reduce friction, compression forces
ends of long bones, costal cartilages, nose, trachea, larynx
67
elastic cartilage
allows flexibility while maintaining shape
| external ear and epiglottis
68
fibrocartilage
lots of collagen
shock absorber
pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs, the meniscus of the knee
69
skeletal muscle
attached to the skeleton, generate movement and heat
| striated, multinucleated, voluntary
70
cardiac muscle tissue
heart propels blood
| striated, branched, uninucleate, intercalated discs, involuntary
71
smooth muscle tissue
walls of hollow organs
| fusiform, uninucleate, lack striations, involuntary
72
nervous tissue
brain, spinal cord, nerves
transmit electrical impulses
neurons and glial cells
73
layers of the epidermis
stratum basale-actively mitotic stem cells on top of the basement membrane contain melanocytes
stratum spinosum-keratinocytes, dendritic cells
stratum granulosum-3-5 layers of flattened cells, keratinization takes place, granules
stratum lucidum-thick skin only in palms and feet, dead keratinocytes
stratum corneum-20-30 layers of dead cells, protect
74
layers of dermis
papillary layer-superficial, areolar CT
-dermal papillae-projections into the epidermis, blood vessels, and Meisner's corpuscles, fingerprints, create friction
reticular layer-dense irregular CT, tension lines
75
sweat glands
eccrine-most numerous, empty through a pore, palms, soles of feet, forehead, thermoregulation
apocrine-empty into a hair follicle, axilla, and anogenital region
76
sebaceous glands
located in the head, face, neck, chest
| secrete sebum into a hair follicle
77
hair
shaft-part we see, keratinized
root-embedded, undergoing keratinization
follicle-invagination of the epidermis into the dermis
melanocytes for color
78
nails
protection and tools
| free edge, body, root
79
long bone
longer than wide
humerus, femur, radius, ulna
diaphysis-shaft, compact bone, yellow bone marrow
epiphysis-ends of the long bone
spongy bone-houses red bone marrow
periosteum-CT surrounding outside of the bone
endosteum-CT lining medullary cavity
80
histology of compact bone
osteons
the center contains nerves and blood vessels connected via Volkman's canals
osteocytes in lacunae that communicate via canaliculi
concentric lamellae-rings of osteons
vascularized
81
intramembranous ossification
```
formation of flat bones from mesenchymal tissue
forms ossification center
-cluster of mesenchymal cells = osteoblasts
osteoid secreted and calcified
-osteocytes
spongy bone and periosteum form
-create trabeculae
compact bone replaces the spongy bone
-redbone marrow forms
```
82
endochondral ossification
forms bone from hyaline cartilage
bony collar around the hyaline model
-osteoblasts secrete osteoid
central cartilage calcified
-chondrocytes die
-cartilage that's healthy elongates
periosteal bud invades the internal cavity and spongy bone forms
-osteoclasts erode calcified matrix
-osteoblasts secrete osteoid = trabeculae
diaphysis elongates and the medullary cavity forms
secondary ossification center at the epiphysis
-no medullary cavity formed
-cartilage remains between epiphysis and diaphysis forming epiphyseal plate
83
maintaining blood calcium homeostasis
?
84
Wolff's Law
?
85
fibrous joint
```
joined by fibrous CT
no movement
sutures of the skull
syndesmosis or radius/ulna and tibia/fibula
gomphosis-teeth
```
86
cartilaginous joint
```
joined by cartilage
synchondrosis-connected via hyaline
-between diaphysis and epiphysis, no movement
symphysis-connected via fibrocartilage
-pubic symphysis, little movement
```
87
synovial joint
freely movable
| shoulder, knee, hip
88
flexion
decrese angle
89
extension
increase the angle
90
hyperextension
increasing angle beyond 180
91
abduction
away from the midline
92
adduction
towards the midline
93
rotation
pivot around a central axis
94
pronation
rotation of forearms so palms face posteriorly
95
supination
roation of forearms so palms face anteriorly
96
eversion
turning sole of the foot outward
97
inversion
turning sole of the foot inward
98
plantarflexion
Tippie toes
99
dorsiflexion
pointing toes to the ceiling
100
protraction
anterior movement in the transverse plane
101
retraction
posterior movement in the transverse plane
102
elevation
lift body part superiorly
103
depression
moving body part inferiorly
104
circumduction
inscribe a cone with an appendage
105
opposition
touch thumb to tips of the other fingers
106
resting membrane potential
more Na outside of the cell
| more K inside of the cell
107
membrane potential generation
stimulus fired off
depolarization-decrease or loss of membrane potential inside becomes less negative
hyperpolarization-increase in membrane potential inside becomes more negative
repolarization-return to RMP
108
the sequence of events in an action potential
graded potential reaches axon hillock and hyperpolarize the membrane (-55)
depolarization of membrane opens voltage-gated Na
channels, the influx of Na, inside is now +30
K channels open, K moves out of the cell = repolarization
some K channels remain open = hyperpolarization, K
efflux, Na channels reset
109
type of signals for potentials
GP: input signal
AP: conduction signal
110
where potentials occur
GP: dendrites or cell body
AP: axon hillock
111
distance traveled for signals
GP: short, local potentials
AP: long
112
types of gated ion channels involved
GP: Na, Cl, Ca+2
AP: Na and K
113
strength of the signal
GP: depends on stimulus
AP: always the same
114
mechanism of synaptic transmission
AP arrives at the axon terminal
voltage-gated Ca+2 channels open and enter the cell
Ca+2 causes neurotransmitters to be exocytosed into the
synaptic cleft
neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the post-synaptic
membrane, opens ion channels
stopped by Ach binding to neurotransmitters
115
glial cells
forms scaffolding for neurons
| mitotic
116
catecholamines
epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine
117
indoleamine
serotonin, histamine
118
excitatory neurotransmitter
causes a depolarization (EPSP)
119
inhibitory neurotransmitter
causes a hyperpolarization (IPSP)
120
direct/ionotrophic neurotransmitter
open chemically gated channels
| Ach and amino acid
121
indirect/metabotrophic neurotransmitter
second messenger systems (cAMP)
122
central nervous system
brain and spinal cord
| integrates sensory and motor info
123
peripheral nervous system
spinal and cranial nerves
| ganglia and sensory receptors
124
astrocytes
star-shaped
most abundant
forms blood-brain barrier
125
microglia
orid cells with a long thorny process
| a specialized type of macrophage
126
ependymal cells
lines cavities within the brain and spinal cord
127
oligodendrocytes
forms myelin sheath in CNS
128
satellite cells
like astrocytes
129
schwann cells
form myelin sheath in PNS
130
meninges
three CT layers that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord
contains CSF
131
dura mater
outermost
| separates to form dural venous sinus
132
arachnoid mater
middle, web-like layer
| contains blood vessels serving the brain
133
pia mater
innermost, intimate with nervous tissue
134
cerebrum
the most superior portion of the brain
83% of total brain mass
grey matter-outside, neuron cell bodies, dendrites, unmyelinated axons
white matter-glial cells, myelinated and unmyelinated axons
135
cerebral cortex function
conscious mind
| perceive, communicate, remember, understand, and initiate voluntary movements
136
primary somatic motor cortex
precentral gyrus of frontal lobe
| conscious control of voluntary movements
137
pre-motor area
anterior to the precentral gyrus
| control repetitious or patterned learned motor skills
138
Broca's area
motor speech area controlling muscles used in speech production
inferior left frontal lobe
139
primary somatosensory cortex
info from somatic sensory receptors and proprioception
140
somatosensory association cortex
integrate sensory inputs to comprehend objects being felt
141
primary visual area
vision, info from the retina
142
olfactory cortex
smell, olfaction
143
primary auditory cortex
sound
144
prefrontal cortex
higher intellectual activity, personality, judgment, planning
145
posterior association area
awareness of yourself in surroundings
146
Wernicke's area
written and spoken language
147
limbic association area
emotions
148
diencephalon
the central grey matter of the forebrain
3 structures surrounding 3rd ventricle
thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus
149
thalamus
major sensory integration and relay station, all sensory fibers except smell synapse here
150
hypothalamus
```
maintain homeostasis
autonomic control center, center for emotional response, body temp regulation
regulate food intake, water, and thirst
regulate sleep-wake
control of the endocrine system
```
151
epithalamus
the pineal gland which releases melatonin
| sleep-inducing signal, help regulate sleep-wake cycles with the hypothalamus
152
midbrain
cerebral peduncles
| pain suppression and links amygdala to fight or flight pathway
153
pons
connect higher brain structures and spinal cord
| control normal breathing rhythms
154
medulla oblongata
adjust force and rate of heart contractions
regulate BP
control rate and depth of breathing
regulate vomiting, hiccupping, swallowing, coughing, sneezing
155
metencephalon
brain stem: pons and cerebellum
156
myelencephalon
brain stem: medulla oblongata
157
limbic system
emotional or affective brain
the upper part of the brainstem
cerebral hemispheres and diencephalon
158
reticular activating system
all ascending sensory tracts synapse here to keep us conscious and awake
filters our unnecessary stimuli
159
flow of CSF
lateral ventricles - interventricular foramen - third ventricle - cerebral aqueduct - fourth ventricle - central canal of the spinal cord or median and lateral apertures - subarachnoid space - arachnoid villi - superior sagittal sinus
160
CN I olfactory
olfaction
161
CN II optic
vision
162
CN III oculomotor
motor to extrinsic eye muscles
| parasympathetic to iris of the eye
163
CN IV trochlear
motor to extrinsic eye muscle
164
CN V trigeminal
primary sensory nerve from face and head
| motor to muscles of mastication
165
CN VI abducens
motor to extrinsic eye muscles
166
CN VII facial
motor to the muscles of facial expression
parasympathetic to lacrimal and salivary glands
taste from anterior 2/3 of the tongue
167
CN VIII vestibulocochlear
hearing and equilibrium
168
CN IX glossopharyngeal
motor to tongue and pharynx
parasympathetic to salivary glands
taste and general sensation from the tongue
169
CN X vagus
parasympathetic fibers to the thoracic and abdominal organs
taste from the posterior tongue
sensory from thoracic and abdominal viscera
170
CN XI accessory
motor to the trapezius, sternocleidomastoid, and pharynx
171
CN XII hypoglossal
motor to the tongue, speech, and chewing
172
anatomy of the spinal cord
extends from the foramen magnum to L2
protected by the vertebral column, meninges, CSF, and fat
31 pairs of spinal nerves
173
histology of the spinal cord
grey matter-butterfly shaped in cross-section
central canal
ventral and dorsal horns
white matter-connect nerve tracts, columns
174
pathway of a spinal reflex
receptor recognize the stimulus
respond to stimuli inside or outside the body
sensory/afferent neuron transmits the afferent impulse to CNS
integration center- brain or spinal cord
the motor neuron conducts efferent impulse to the effector organ
effector organ-gland or muscle
175
ascending pathways
conduct sensory/afferent impulses
enter spinal cord and travel to the brain via 3 neuron chain
1st order neuron enter spinal cord or brain stem
2nd order neuron has soma in the spinal cord or medullary nucleus
-transmit the impulse to the thalamus or cerebellum
-decussate
3rd order neuron cell bodies in the thalamus
-travel to the somatosensory cortex of the cerebrum
176
descending pathway
```
conduct motor/efferent impulse
deliver signals from the brain or spinal cord to the effector tissue
upper and lower neurons
direct/pyramidal
indirect/extrapyramidal
```
177
somatic nervous system
```
cell body in the anterior horn of the spinal cord
1 neurotransmitter- Ach
excitatory response
myelinated axons
skeletal muscle
```
178
sympathetic nerve chain
lightly myelinated
Ach - unmyelinated - norepinephrine; glands, smooth or cardiac muscle
stimulatory or inhibitory effect
adrenal medulla route of Ach to NE/E
179
parasympathetic nerve chain
lightly myelinated - Ach- unmyelinated - Ach
glands, smooth or cardiac muscles
stimulatory or inhibitory effect
180
sympathetic division
fight or flight
widespread, many organs affected
long-lasting
help cope with stress... not essential to life
181
parasympathetic division
rest and digest
localized to 1 organ
responses are brief, Achesterase quickly breaks down Ach
essential to maintain homeostasis
182
affect on the head
S: dilate pupil, decrease lacrimal, salivary, and nasal secretions
P: contract pupils, increase secretions
183
affect on the lungs
S: dilate bronchioles
P: constrict bronchioles
184
affect on the heart
S: increase HR and force of contraction, vasodilation of coronary vessels
P: slows HR, decrease HR
185
affect on the liver
S: increased rate of glycogenolysis
P: increase glucose uptake from blood
186
affect on the GI tract
S: relax smooth muscles in walls of organs, contract sphincters, decrease secretions
P: increase motility, dilate sphincters, increase secretions
187
affect on the kidneys
S: vasoconstriction, decrease blood flow and urine output
P: norma urine output
188
affect on the bladder
S: relax smooth muscles, contract sphincters, inhibits peeing
P: contract bladder, relax the sphincter, promotes peeing
189
affect on the sex organs
S: ejaculation of seminal fluid, contract preggo uterus, contraction of the vagina
P: erection, vasodilation, increase vaginal lubrication, dilate
190
affect on the blood vessel
S: vasodilation in skeletal muscle, liver, heart, adipose tissue, vasoconstriction elsewhere
P: vasodilation
191
affect on the sweat glands
S: increased sweating
P: decreased sweating
192
affect on the arrector pili muscles
S: contraction
P: dilation
193
affect on adipose tissue
S: increase lipolysis
P: N/A
194
actin
thin
195
troponin
regulatory protein
| binds to actin, tropomyosin, or Ca+2
196
tropomyosin
regulatory proteins
stiffen actin backbone
inhibit binding of actin to myosin at rest
197
myosin
thick
| has ATP binding site
198
know sarcomere
image
199
z-lines
attach to actin
| define sarcomere boundaries
200
i-band
actin only
201
a-band
actin and myosin
202
h-zone
center of a-band
| myosin only
203
m-line
the dark center of h-zone
204
excitation-contraction coupling
AP leads to sliding of myofilaments
AP along t-tubule, release Ca+2 into the sarcoplasm
Ca+2 binds to troponin, removing tropomyosin
myosin can attach to actin, cross-bridge cycle begins
205
contraction cycle
cross-bridge from between actin and myosin
Powerstroke by ADP and PI being released
myosin heads swivel and pulls actin towards the center, ATP site exposed
ATP binds and breaks crossbridge
continue until it runs out of Ca+2 or ATP
206
latent phase
no measure response but all excitation-contraction coupling
| AP generation
207
contraction phase
onset, the peak of shortening
208
relaxation phase
contractile force no longer generated
209
length-tension relationship
the initial strength of sarcomere has a big effect on the amount of tension it can produce
generate most when at normal resting length
optimal range 80-120%
210
ways a muscle fiber generates ATP
creatine phosphate
anaerobic respiration/glycolysis
aerobic cellular respiration/oxidative phosphorylation
211
slow oxidative
postural
endurance
neck, back, legs
212
fast oxidative glycolytic
short term, intense, powerful movement
legs
reserves, replace CP, get rid of lactic acid
213
fast glycolytic
sprinting, running, short-term fast
| legs and arms
214
color of muscle fibers
SO: red
FOG: red-pink
FG: white
215
the fiber diameter of muscle fiber
SO: small
FOG: intermediate
FG: large
216
of mitochondria of muscle fiber
SO: many
FOG: many
FG: few
217
of capillaries of muscle fiber
SO: many
FOG: many
FG: few
218
twitch rate of muscle fiber
SO: slow
FOG: fast
FG: fast
219
myosin ATPase activity of muscle fiber
SO: slow
FOG: fast
FG: fast
220
ATP synthesis of muscle fiber
SO: aerobic
FOG: aerobic/glycolytic
FG: anaerobic
221
myoglobin content of muscle fiber
SO: high
FOG: high
FG: low
222
glycogen stores of muscle fiber
SO: low
FOG: intermediate
FG: high
223
rate of fatigue of muscle fiber
SO: slow
FOG: intermediated
FG: fast
224
isotonic
same tension
| length decrease but the tension does not change
225
concentric
muscle shortens to move a load
226
eccentric
muscle generates force as it lengthens
227
isometric
same length
| tension increase but never exceeds the resistance of the load
