Exam 1 Material (Ch 1-4) Flashcards
(131 cards)
1
Q
What are the 4 philosophical sources (epistemology) of cognitive psychology?
A
- Nativism
- Empiricism
- Rationalism
- Associationism
2
Q
Define: Nativism
A
Knowledge is what you’re born with
3
Q
Define: Empiricism
A
Knowledge is what you acquire via your senses
4
Q
Define: Rationalism
A
You’re born with the ability to reason; related to nativism
5
Q
Define: Associationism
A
You put simpler ideas together to form more complex ideas; related to empiricism
6
Q
What are the 4 psychological sources of cognitive psychology?
A
- Structuralism
- Verbal Learning
- Functionalism
- Behaviorism
7
Q
Define: LOGIC THEORIST
A
- Computer program made by Simon & Newell
- The 1st ever AI computer program
8
Q
What are the 3 assumptions of cognitive psychology?
A
- Mental processes exist
- Mental processes can be studied scientifically
- Humans are active information processors
9
Q
What psychological source does the first assumption (mental processes exist) challenge?
A
Behaviorism
10
Q
Define: Behaviorism
A
All behaviors are acquired through conditioning
-Concerned with observable behavior NOT internal events like thinking
11
Q
What psychological source does the 2nd assumption (mental processes can be studied scientifically) challenge?
A
Structuralism
-Challenge to structuralism’s emphasis on introspection
12
Q
Define: Structuralism
A
Method of breaking down mental processes into its basic components via introspection
13
Q
Define: Introspection
A
Examination of one own’s conscious thoughts and feelings
-Very ineffective as a scientific study tool for looking into the mind
14
Q
Define: Cognitive Psychology
A
The branch of experimental psychology that deals w/ the processes involved in human thought
15
Q
Define: Lexical Decision Task
What is it’s purpose?
A
A reading test in which a string of letters are shown and subject is asked if they form a word.
Ex. of a way to study mental processes in a scientific manner
16
Q
What psychological source does the 3rd assumption (humans are active information processors) reject?
A
Behaviorism: it’s assumption that learning and behavior can be explained by stimulus-response associations found by conditioning
17
Q
Are animals capable of understanding complex info?
A
Yes. Studies have shown that many species are
1. capable of complex info processing
and
2. active seekers of info
18
Q
What is the difference between implicit and explicit cognition?
A
Explicit Cognition: driven by info you’re conscious of
Implicit Cognition: driven by info you’re unconscious of (makes up majority of our thinking)
19
Q
Define: Mental Representation
A
We don’t engage directly with the world but with our OWN mental idea of the world (our perception of what the world is)
20
Q
Define: Propositional/Verbal
A
True or false statements
ex. The sky is blue
21
Q
Define: Analogical/Sensory
A
Visual and auditory imagery analogous to our perceptional experience
22
Q
Define: Metacognition
A
Awareness of our own cognitive system and knowledge and insight into its workings
23
Q
Define: Artificial Intelligence
A
The science of getting computers to do tasks that would require intelligence if done by humans
24
Q
Define: Turing Test
A
- Test to determine whether computers can think
- In test, humans and computers are given the same set of questions to answer
- If we’re not able to distinguish between the responses of a human and the responses of a computer, then the computer can think
- So far, no computer system has passed the Turing test
25
What was Simon and Newell's goal when creating an AI system?
To write the most human like model theory of the human mind into a computer program so that it can be used to make predictions on the human mind
-Why: because they viewed themselves as psychological theorists
26
Define: Verbal Protocols
| Where were they used?
Def: Transcripts of what people said as they were thinking outloud while solving problems
-Used in Simon and Newell's 1st AI program
27
What was the name of the 2nd AI program?
GENERAL PROBLEM SOLVER
28
What types of problems did Simon and Newell use in their AI program to test human and computer intelligence?
Cryptoarithmetic
29
Define: Cryptoarithmetic
Math problem where each letter represents a number--must determine what number each letter represents
30
Define: Searle's Chinese Room
-Metaphor used to show that a computer's intelligence is limited to the info it's supplied-->limited by human's intelligence
- Imagine you're in a room with 2 slots; from 1 slot slips written in chinese (which you don't understand) come out.
- Your job is to respond to these slips (in Chinese) and put them into the 2nd slot
- However, you have a rule book that tells you what each message means the corresponding correct response
-Does this mean you know Chinese? No
Why not? Because you're not approaching the task in the same way that a native Chinese speaker would approach the task
31
What can you conclude, in regards to AI, from Searle's Chinese Room?
Even if a computer passes the Turing Test, it'd just be like you in the Chinese room--i.e. always following rules but never understanding
-The computer does not have any of its own intentions
32
What does Searle's Chinese Room change about the approach to AI?
- New Emphasis/Goal: Create neurally plausible models (more similar to neural networks in the brain) of the mind
- Make very specialized programs that are programmed to do very complex tasks rather than act as a model of the human mind
33
Define: Penfield
If you stimulate specific parts of the brain, you can initiate specific movements, moods, and memories
34
Define: Perceptrons
- A system to allow correct responses to particular inputs (stimuli)--tries to simulate the function of a neuron
- Each unit consisted of an input and an output each consisting of a layer of simple interconnected units
- Each unit may either be inactive or active
35
Name a limitation of perceptrons.
Limitation: Can't do XOR problem.
XOR Problem=must make a response if you see 1 of 2 stimuli but not if both are seen at the same time
36
How do perceptrons work?
Response that system makes depends on the strengths of connections b/w input and output units
- Strength of connection changes-->system learns
- Like the neural pathways in the brain, the more you use the connection that you've made, the stronger it will be
37
Define: Connectionism/Parallel Distributed Process
- 2nd attempt at making an artificial simulation of a neural network
- Consists of a large number of simple but highly interconnected units
- Some connections are stronger than others
- Learning consists of changes in the weights/strengths of connections
38
What is the structure of the units used in Connectionism?
1. Input
2. Hidden
3. Output
39
What is the function of the hidden unit?
Receives info from the input and modifies the action before sending it to the output
40
How does the unit in Connectionism become active?
-Units simply sum activity
| If sum is greater than a threshold, unit becomes active (similar to the action potential of a neuron)
41
Define: Embodied Cognition
The way our minds represent information reflects the fact that our bodies must interact with the world.
42
How does the Brain Metaphor and Computer Metaphor of the Mind differ from embodied cognition?
Brain and Computer metaphors imply that the mind can be studied in isolation BUT the mind interacts with the world-->Embodied Cognition
43
Define: Signal Detection Theory
- A method of measuring the accuracy of cog psych experiments
- Responses must distinguish between accuracy and response bias (tendency to select a particular answer repetitively)
- Accuracy=function of (Hits-F.A.)
- Hits: Answer 'yes' correctly
- False Alarms: Answer 'yes' incorrectly
- Correct Rejections: Answer 'no' correctly
- Misses: Answer 'no' incorrectly
44
Define: Pseudoword Effect
1. Give subject a list composed of words and pseudowords (pronounceable non-words like Lonk, Fing, Rame)
2. Tell subjects to go through list and pick out the words
Results:
Words: Hits=.58 F.A. .18
Pseudowords: Hits: .76 F.A. .43
Conclusion: Although people recognize pseudowords more often, their accuracy is better for words
45
When would you measure response time?
When accuracy is nearly perfect.
46
Define: Lexical Decision Task
-Task in which subjects are timed to see how fast they classify stimuli as words or non-words (pseudowords)
47
Name 2 factors that influence response time in the Lexical Decision Task.
1. Word Factors
- Word frequency, familiarity, age of acquisition, orthographic neighborhood size (ex. pig, bunch vs egg, width)
2. Non Word Factors
- are non-words pronounceable (pseudowords)?
- do nonwords (ex. brane) sound like words (pseudowords?
48
Define: Donder's Subtraction Method
- Method to analyze the time it took for subject to form a mental connection
- Time needed to make a connection=Choice Rxn Time-Simple Rxn Time
Simple Rxn=instinctual rxn
Choice Rxn=the rxn you decide to do
49
What are the 2 components that make up the retina of the eye?
1. Rods: see things in black and white, most active in low light environment
2. Cones: color vision (red, green, blue), most active in bright light environment, located in fovea
50
Define: Motor Theory of Speech Perception
- We identify speech sounds by comparing stimuli with how we would move our vocal muscles to make those sounds
- We hear sounds as how we ourselves would make them
- The same parts of the brain are involved in speech perception and speech production
51
How do emotions affect out ability to identify objects?
-Objects are identified faster and more accurately if they arouse emotions
- ex. we can identify tools faster if we're given a context of how we're going to use them
- ex. perception of height and distance is influenced by our bodily state (like wearing a backpack=we feel like we're walking a longer distance)
52
(Embodiment In Memory)
| Define: Enactment Effect
- Memory for list of tasks is improved if we carry out the task
- We improve our retrieval of info if we physically engage from the environment
- Words are rated more memorable and issues more important if we're carrying something heavy (ex. textbook, clipboard)
53
Define: Contralaterality
Hemispheres control opposite sides of the body
54
Define: Reductionism
Belief that a complex system is nothing but a sum of its parts.
55
Define: Ecological Validity
- Measures how close the materials, methods, and settings of a study approximate the real-world that is being examined
- not the same as external validity which is whether you can make general statements to project on world based on your study
56
Define: Free Recall
- Method used to study memory
- Subjects are given a list of things (ex. words) to study and then asked to recall in any order words from that list
-Results: subjects remember words at the beginning and end of list better than those in the middle
57
Define: Orthographic Neighborhood Size
-Refers to the number of words that are the same length (same number of letters) as a given word but are one letter off (ex. Cat, Bat, Mat, Hat)
58
Define: Fovea
Center of the retina
| -Responsible for the sharp vision needed for activities requiring attention to detail (ex. reading, driving)
59
Define: Depth Perception
-Ability to see objects in 3-dimension and the distance of the object
60
What are the 3 cues that are used to determine depth perception?
1. Binocular Disparity
2. Accommodation
3. Motion Parallax
61
Define: Binocular Disparity
The difference in image location of an object seen by the left and the right eye
62
Define: Accommodation
Signals from the stretching/relaxing of ciliary muscles to stretch the lens and put object in focus tell brain how far it is
63
Define: Motion Parallax
-Relative motion of several stationary objects against a background when the observer moves gives hints about their relative distance
64
Define: Agnosia
- Inability to recognize and comprehend the meaning of objects that're seen even w/ intact senses
- Due to brain damage
65
Define: Fixation ( Visual Fixation)
- Visual gaze is maintained on a single location
| - Type of eye movement
66
Define: Saccades
- Fast jumps/jerks of the eyes
| - Serves as a mechanism for fixation and other types of eye movements
67
Define: Saccadic Suppression
-Visual processing is suppressed during a saccade (even involving images)
68
Define: Change Blindness
-Failure to notice changes in stimuli that occur during a saccade
69
Define: Span of Apprenhension
The number of items a person is able to process simultaneously and be able to recall
70
Describe the Partial Report Task. What concept does it show?
Concept: Span of Apprehension
Exp: Subjects are briefly flashed an array of letters (3 by 3) and then asked to recall any of the letters that they saw
Result: On average people were able to recall about 3 letters
71
Define: Backward Masking
The presentation of a later stimulus can interfere with the perception of an earlier stimulus if it's presented where the earlier stimulus had been
72
Describe the Bar-Marker Task. What concept does it show?
Concept: Backward Masking
Exp1: Set of letters are flashed quickly and then turned off. A bar appears slightly below one of the letters as they disappear. Subject is asked to recall what letter had been there.
Exp 2: Same thing, but this time, ## appears on top of where the letter had been.
Result: Subject can recall letter when it is a line, but cannot when it's ##.
73
What can the combination of visual sensory memory and backward masking lead to?
Visual Illusions of Apparent Motion:
1. Beta Movement
2. Phi Phenomenon
74
Define: Beta Movement
Viewing multiple pictures in succession can lead to the illusion of movement (ex. movies, cartoons)
75
Define: Phi Phenomenon
2 stimuli in 2 dif points in space may be seen to move toward each other
76
What are the 2 types of sensory memory?
1. Auditory sensory memory (echoic memory)
| 2. Visual sensory memory (iconic memory)
77
Describe Darwin's exp that tests auditory sensory memory.
1. Three sets of letters are played simultaneously to subject.
2. A tone played indicates which letter is to be reported by subject
Result: Duration seems longer than in visual
-2-3 seconds after letters are played did subjects begin to give incorrect answers
Conclusion: Auditory memory lasts longer than visual memory
78
What are the implications regarding auditory sensory memory from Darwin's exp?
-Auditory sensory memory might be more necessary in everyday life than visual
79
Define: Immediate Serial Recall
Ability to recall a series (can be numbers, words, letters, etc) in order after being presented to it in either a visual or auditory manner
80
Define: Modality Effect
There's an advantage for auditory presentation over visual presentation AT THE END OF A LIST in immediate serial recall
Why: Because of our longer lasting auditory sensory memory=the last 1 or 2 things heard will remain resounding in your ear
81
Define: Suffix Effect
A speech sound (suffix) presented after the end of the list will selectively hurt recall of last items
82
Is the suffix effect an example of backward masking?
Yes
83
What types of suffix exhibit the suffix effect? Which ones don't?
Types That Do: Words unrelated to list
Types That Don't:
- Visual suffix
- Meaning of an auditory suffix
- Tones and non-human words
84
What determines the magnitude of the suffix effect?
The physical similarity of suffix to list items
85
Describe Greene & Crowder's lipreading test and the results.
Exp: Visuoaudiotapes were made of a speaker reading a list of digits. Subjects would either watch the videotape with sound or with the soundtrack removed. Then subjects had to immediately recall in order (serial recall) the numbers the speaker said on the tape.
Result: there was little difference between those that watched the tape with the soundtrack and those who watched it without
-When there was a suffix added in the tape, those who lipread performed the same as perform and those who had the soundtrack did worse near the end
Conclusion: Lipreading works like hearing
86
Give an explanation of why lipreading works like hearing.
Auditory sensory memory is a process for determining what one has just heard.
-This process includes not only auditory stimulation but other info useful for identifying sounds.
87
Define: McGurk Effect
Shows that people use lip movements to identify speech
ex. tv repetitively says one word "Bob" but then all of a sudden you see the persons lips move and say "God" even though the audio playing is still saying "Bob"
88
What are the 4 Gestalt principles of grouping?
1. Proximity
-group if near each other
2. Similarity
-group if they're similar to each other
3. Closure
-tendency to like to try and group to complete a
whole
4. Good Continuation
-tendency to like to have a good flow/straight
path
89
Define: Data-Driven Processing
Processing is driven by the stimulus pattern, the incoming data
-Also known as bottom up processing, stimulus is environment
90
Define: Conceptually-Driven Processing
Context and higher-level knowledge influence your interpretation of lower-level processes
-Also known as top-down processing, stimulus is you (your expectations, conceptions)
91
Name 2 approaches to data driven processing
1. Template Approach
| Feature-Detection Approach
92
Define: Template Approach
Classification is done by referring back to stored models of all categorizable patterns
-This is of limited use
93
Define: Feature-Detection Approach
Classification is done by breaking patterns down into features
94
What is Selfridge's Pandemonium? What are the 3 important ideas that come out of it?
There are a bunch of demons with which we have to process our data:
- Data demons: encode patterns
- Computational Demons: feature analyzers
- Cognitive Demons: Match whole letters
- Decision Demons: Decide what's correct
Ideas That Arise:
1. Importance of feature detection in pattern recognition
2. Pattern recognition MUST involve PARALLEL PROCESSING
3. Pattern recognition is a problem solving process
95
Define: Geon
Simple 3D geometric forms stored in our memory which we use to find a combination that matches the object in our visual field that we've broken down
Ex. Ice Cream Cone=Sphere + Cone
96
# Define: Recognition by Components
What data-driven process approach does this fall under?
Visual input is matched against structural representations of objects (geons) in the brain.
Falls under feature detection approach.
97
Define: Concept Driven Processing
Context and expectations can play a role in our perception of the world
ie. sometimes you don't see something if you don't expect it
98
Describe an experiment that exemplifies Concept Driven Processing.
Tulving and Gold:
-measured the amount of time a word had to be flashed before people could identify it
-Main variable=# of content words that were shown before the target word was flashed
99
Define: Repetition Blindness
Tendency to not perceive a visual stimulus when it is quickly repeated
100
Describe an experiment that exemplifies Repetition Blindness
-Subject watches as a short series of words were flashed very quickly and then must report back what words they saw
Result: When shown 7-word lists at fast rate, repetitions were missed 65% of the time
- Same effect occurs in sentences if words are flashed quickly
(ex. When she spilled the ink there was ink all over)
101
Define: World-Superiority Effect
People can perceive words faster than non-words or individual letters
102
What is the reasoning behind the world-superiority effect?
1. Familiarity with stimulus
-common words can be read faster than rare
words
2. Familiarity with word shape
-difficulty to read words in mixed case (ex.
wORd)
3. Familiarity with English spelling patterns
-pseudowords (ex. MAPE) are easier to read
than illegal non-words (ex. MPEA)
103
When people are given passages and asked to cross out all occurrences of the letter "T", they miss about 7 out of the 40 Ts found in the passage. Why is this?
People tend to read common words as units and thus, tend to miss individual letters in them
Ex. "THE"
104
Why are phonemes a difficult stimuli to perceive in a data-driven fashion?
Problem of Invariance
1. Everyone pronounces phonemes differently
2. A single speaker will pronounce a phoneme very differently depending on context
3. It's difficult to isolate phonemes in a continuous stream of speech
105
Define: Phonemic Restoration Effect
We restore sounds that are taken out of words, even if they're not there
ex. "the state governments with their respective legi*latures convened in the capital city"
-Context determines what sound is restored
ex. It was found that the *eel was on the axel
vs.
It was found that the *eel was on the shoe
106
Define: Cocktail Party Effect
People are able to focus on one stream of conversation while ignoring others
107
What did the Cocktail Party Effect originate from?
The Shadowing Task
108
Describe the Shadowing Task.
Objective: repeat one message while ignoring other messages that you hear
Result: even a word repeated 35 times over unattended ear can't be recalled by the subject
Method: Dichotic Presentation
109
Define: Dichotic Presentation
Subject has a set of headphones on where they hear 2 different messages in each ear. The subject must repeat message heard in a particular ear.
110
Define: Early Selection Theory
Attention works as a selective filter, choosing one channel based on physical characteristics
111
What are some problems with early selection in attention?
1. Name Selection
- participants are startled when they hear their own name while doing shadowing task
2. Meaning and Channel Switching
- stuff heard in one ear will switch over to other ear during Shadowing task-->subject switches and repeats on the same subject matter despite now coming from the other ear
3. Binaural Presentation
- same voice repeats 2 dif messages over both ears-->forces subject to rely on meaning for selective attention-->therefore, if necessary, selection can be based on meaning
112
Name some effects of unattended meaning.
1. Words you didn't pay attention to influence your interpretation of the meaning of the words you hear/supposed to listen to
(ex. threw stones at the river bank=interpret word "bank" in terms of water; think it means "river bank")
2. Context affects interpretation of word and we are conscious of what we hear regardless of whether we've selectively chosen to pay attention to/focus on
113
Define: Visual Selective Attention as Spotlight
Attention is directed at everything that is in the "spotlight" projected onto the visual field
-when you select something to attend to, other stimuli are inhibited=active suppression of info
114
Define: Negative Priming
Inhibition of info at one time carries over into further processing
115
Describe an experiment that exhibits negative priming
Exp: in each trieal of words, must read green word and ignore red word in the word pair set
-some of the words you have to say are words that previously you had to ignore
Conclusion: Inhibition on one trial carries on to the next
116
How can attention be seen as a mental resource?
Can be seen as a the limited mental energy/resource that powers cognition
117
Define: Vigilance
The maintenance of attention for infrequent events over a long period
118
Define: Orienting Reflex
The redirection of attention toward an unexpected stimulus
119
Define: Habituation
A reduction of the orienting reflex as a result of repetition
120
Define: Tresiman's Feature-Integration Theory
- Objects are sets of Features
- Features are registered quickly and automatically and in parallel simultaneously across a whole visual field
- Combining features require serial processing of each location field
121
Define: Inhibition of Return
Once a location has been attended to, it's marked as a location not to be returned to which can interfere w/ responding to a new stimulus that occurs there
122
Define: Illusory Conjunctitons
Features at unattended locations are free-floating and may recombine (random combo of things you hadn't paid attention to)
123
Define: Attentional Blink
Attention is limited, if it is captured by a stimulus, another may be missed
-When you have to respond to 2 stimuli, 2nd may be in refractory period of the 1st
124
Define: Attention Capture
Spontaneous redirection of attention to stimuli based on physical characteristics
125
Describe an experiment exhibiting attentional blink.
Control Condition: watch a string of rapidly presented black letters and indicate if X is in string (only has to pay attention to 1 thing)
Attentional Blink Condition: watch string of rapidly presented black letters and identify letter printed in white. Then, indicate whether X was in the string. (now have to pay attention to 2 things) Subject is told that X always occurs after white letter.
Results: subject does more poorly when distance between letter and X is average and does better when letter and X are right next to each other or very far apart
126
What are the characteristics of automaticity?
1. Process occurs rapidly and without intention
2. Not open to conscious awareness or introspection
3. Consumes few, if any attentional resources
127
Define: Stroop Effect
Shows the interference in the reaction time of processing words vs colors.
Conclusion: We process words faster than color so it takes longer to suppress this when required to just say color
- When having to read words, color of word doesn't affect speed at all
- Speed of reading color of word when word is similar in meaning to color but NOT the same increases time it takes to name the colors
128
Name 3 Disorders of Attention
1. Mind-Wandering
2. Action Slips
3. Hemineglect
129
Define: Hemineglect
Disruption or decreased ability to attend to something in one field of vision (often left), typically result of a stroke
- Patient still receives sensory input normally
- Attention often seems to be captured by stimuli in the other (attended) visual field
ex. can't shave one side of face b/c can't focus on it but they don't realize/not bothered by the fact they're half-shaved
130
Define: Mind-Wandering
Situation in which a person's attention and thoughts drift from the current task to some other
- Inappropriate line of thought, often something of long-term importance
- More likely to happen to people with greater mental (working-memory) capacity
131
Define: Action Slips
Unintended. often automatic, actions that are inappropriate for the current situation
-Most likely to occur when distracted
ex. pack a lunch when you've made plans to go out
