Exam 3 Material (Ch 9-12) Flashcards

Question

Define: Problem of Segmentation

Answer 1

Few acoustic cues as to where one PHONEME and the next begins

Answer 2

Few acoustic cues as to where one WORD ends and the next begins

Answer 3

A variety of distinct processes (from perception to meaning) operate simultaneously and influence each other -Used to overcome the challenges of speech perception

Answer 4

We identify speech sounds by comparing stimuli with how we would move our own vocal muscles to make those sounds Why we do this: b/c primarily the same parts of the brain are involved in speech perception and production

Answer 5

The connectionists's/interactive model of speech perception

Answer 6

1. Acoustic input activates feature-detector nodes 2. Feature detector nodes activate phonemes that contain those features 3. Phonemes send activation to all words that contain them (i.e. cross modal priming) -words simultaneously receive top-down activation from context -Words send feedback to phonemes they contain 4. Model forms a memory trace of the order in which phonemes are being heard (helps to distinguish b/w ex. "Bat" and "Tab") 5. Over time, one lexical (word) unit comes to dominate, leading to conscious recognition of that word (result of acoustic info at the feature, phoneme & word levels, semantic context and word frequency)

Answer 7

Competition at both phoneme and word levels

Answer 8

It takes longer to recognize words with COMMON BEGINNINGS | -form of lateral inhibition

Answer 9

The complete set of rules that will generate all the acceptable utterances & will not generate any unacceptable, ill-formed ones

Answer 10

1. Phonology: sounds of language 2. Syntax: rules of word order & grammaticality 3. Semantics: accessing & combining word meanings into a meaningful whole

Answer 11

Linguistic COMPETENCE: the internalized knowledge of language & its rules that fully fluent speakers of a language have Linguistic PERFORMANCE: the ACTUAL language behavior a speaker generates

Answer 12

1. Phrase Structure Rules | 2. Transformation Rules

Answer 13

The rules accounting for the constituents of utterance * the relationship among these constituents -ex. breaking sentences into non-phrases & word phrases

Answer 14

The rules that convert a deep structure into one of several possible surface structures.

Answer 15

People choose syntactic forms that let them place given (i.e. more accessible) info earlier

Answer 16

People tend to use syntactic forms they've seen or heard recently -Shown in Bock's syntactic priming exp

Answer 17

Method: Subjects must alternative b/w repeating spoken sentences and describing pictures Results: Subjects tended to use same syntactic structure (ex. passive voice, positional of prepositional phrases) as in sentences they've just repeated.

Answer 18

Achieving understanding of language (i.e. morphemes, individual words, texts, conversation) & perceived events

Answer 19

1. Surface level representation 2. Text-based/propositional representation 3. Situation Model (mental/discourse model)

Answer 20

A verbatim representation of the wording used in the text -very short-lived (< 1 day) representation of the exact wording of a text -exceptions=where exact wording may be critical (ex. memory for jokes, insults, poetry)

Answer 21

Method: subjects listen to passages and are then tested on recognition memory for 1 sentence in passage which will occur either 0,80, or 160 syllables from end (

Answer 22

Propositional representation of ideas explicitly stated in the text

Answer 23

A representation of a meaning that can be stored in & retried from memory, an assertion that can have a truth value

Answer 24

Method: Subjects study list of unrelated sentences each w/ 2 propositions for 20 mins (ex. "Geese crossed the horizon as wind shuffled the clouds) and then did a speed recognition test on words from sentences Results: -shortest recognition time=of word after same propositional phrase (ex. horizon, geese) -longest= word after word from DIF sentence on previous trial Conclusion: Priming plays a positive role in forming propositional representations

Answer 25

The more propositions associated with a concept, the more time it takes to access each one (i.e. take longer recognize each one)

Answer 26

Representation of what text is about/of real world situation described -an amalgam of info that's contained in the textbase & info that's been retrieved from the comprehender's general store of knowledge Components: spatial layouts, distance, temporal info

Answer 27

Mental travel through a memorized diagram | -Increase in reading time when objects discussed in a sentence aren't in the same location as protagonist

Answer 28

Faster recognition of objects/words if their location is closer to the end

Answer 29

Read passage faster if it presents a smaller time scale (i.e. moment vs hour vs day vs year)

Answer 30

Processes: laying a foundation, mapping info, shifting Control Mechanisms: enhancement, suppression Empirical Phenomena: advantage of first mention, advantage of clause recency

Answer 31

Words/participants mentioned 1st in a sentence are more accessible (and therefore recognized quicker) than those mentioned 2nd in a sentence.

Answer 32

Concepts mentioned in the most recent clause are more accessible (and therefore recognized quicker) than those mentioned earlier on/previously

Answer 33

An apparatus that uses a computer & camera to record eye movements and the exact words they are fixated upon

Answer 34

1. Eye-mind assumption | 2. Immediacy assumption

Answer 35

The pattern of eye movements directly reflects the complexity of the underlying cognitive processes

Answer 36

Readers try to interpret each content word of a text as that word is encountered in passage (ex. garden path sentences)

Answer 37

Sentences in which early words/phrases are misinterpreted | -ex. "many professional fisherman were here, some of the best bass guitarists..."

Answer 38

Method: Control availability of info by replacing letters (ex. w/ X's) outside the fixated area ex. "Our eyes don't simply glide across the page" Fixate Near 'Y' -> Our eyes don't sXXXXXX Fixate Near 'G' ->XXXXimply glide acrossXXX Result: skilled english readers get info 3-4 spaces to the left and 14-15 spaces to the right of fixation -span decreases as skill decreases and also dependent on subject's primary language (ex. will be dif for languages that are ready right->left or up->down)

Answer 39

- Spaces between words - short, predictable, function, common words are most likely to be skipped - Eyes tend to land halfway b/w start & middle of words

Answer 40

- Fixation time influenced by word frequency, predictability, age of acquisition & # of meanings - continuing visual info not needed; removing fixated word after 50ms has no effect on reading behavior

Answer 41

Monitoring how well we understand & will remember info later | -a type of metacognition

Answer 42

Estimates people make of how well they've learned info they've just read (usually very inaccurate right after learning)

Answer 43

People spend too much time trying to learn info far beyond their current level of knowledge -better to focus on learning info w/in region of proximal learning

Answer 44

Info just beyond your current level of understanding

Answer 45

Rules that govern our conversational interactions with others, all derived from the cooperative principle

Answer 46

Idea that each participant assumes that speakers will follow the rules and that each contribution is sincere and appropriate

Answer 47

1. Relevant: all utterances are relevant to the conversation 2. Quantity: be as informative as required 3. Quality: say what is true 4. Manner and tone: be clear, brief, and polite

Answer 48

Making contributions relevant to the topic and sticking to it

Answer 49

We construct a mental mode of what our conversational partner knows and is interested in

Answer 50

An evaluation of the other person's direct theory; what you think the other person believes about you

Answer 51

Word in a text refers back to other ideas in the text for its meaning (interpretation of pronouns and possessives) (ex. "her" refers to the previously mentioned character "Jane"; "her" in this case is the "anaphor")

Answer 52

Interference experienced by readers when pronouns are replaced with repeated names. -results in a decrease in reading speed

Answer 53

The intended consequences of an utterance -can be achieved through figurative (nonliteral) utterances (ex. indirect requests, sarcasm, figures of speech, metaphors)

Answer 54

Rule or procedure guaranteed to find the answer if followed correctly

Answer 55

Settle for finding a satisfactory way to make a decision by taking the 1st solution that satisfies some criterion we have

Answer 56

A short-cut/strategy that often works but is not guaranteed to succeed

Answer 57

1. Representativeness 2. Availability 3. Simulation 4. Recognition

Answer 58

The way in which options are presented can influence decisions

Answer 59

An estimate of the probability of an event is determined by 1 OF the 2 features: 1. how similar the event is to the POPULATION OF EVENTS it came from 2. how similar the event is to the PROCESS that produced it -typified by tendency to see HHTHTTTH as more likely sequence of coin flips than HHHHHHHH

Answer 60

People judge the frequency of events by determining the ease with which particular occurrences come to mind

Answer 61

Our thinking about events is influenced by the ease with which we could imagine dif outcomes ("What if" scenarios)

Answer 62

We make many judgments based on the familiarity of the terms

Answer 63

A multi-statement logical form, first stating premises taken to be true and the last part, a conclusion based on the premises/proposition -can deal with set relations (all p are q, all q are x, so all p are x) or involve conditional reasoning (if p then q; then not q=not p)

Answer 64

A logical determination of whether the evidence supports, refutes, or is irrelevant to the stated if-then relationship

Answer 65

People do not use formal logical rules but instead construct mental model of problem - construction is easier when problem is stated explicitly - difficulty is affected by applicability of real-world knowledge and # models needed

Answer 66

Individual seeks to provide strong evidence for (NOT absolute proof of) the truth of the conclusion

Answer 67

Method: Give subject premises and then ask them to give probability that conclusions is true. Premises: swans have sesamoid bones; ravens have sesamoid bones. Conclusions: - all birds have sesamoid bones - all vertabrates have sesamoid bones Conclusion: Generalization to category increases.. -as a function of # of premises -as a function of TYPICALITY of premises -(generalizing from bears to all mammals is more likely than from bats to all mammals) -as a function of DIVERSITY of premises -(generalizing to all mammals is more likely from bears and mice than from lions and leopards)

Answer 68

We tend to test inductive generalizations only by looking for positive evidence

Answer 69

The minimal change needed for people to detect it

Answer 70

The greater the distance or difference b/w the stimuli being compared, the faster the decision that they differ

Answer 71

Speed of judgements of differences between symbols is affected by distance on some symbolic dimension (ex. you will pick the larger # faster if given 2 vs 5 than if given 3 vs 4)

Answer 72

Decisions are faster when the judged dimension matches the implied semantic dimension (ex. you will pick the smaller animal faster if given rabbit vs. mouse than if given hippo vs. elephant) *if you must pick the larger animal, you're faster at making the decision if choosing between 2 large animals (like an elephant & hippo) -also, will pick lower circle faster if told they represent yo-yos ; will pick higher circle faster if told they represent balloons

Answer 73

Judgments about SMALLER numbers are faster with LEFT hand; judgments about LARGER numbers are faster with RIGHT hand -phenomena holds for... -left- and right-handed test subjects -when subjects cross hands used to press buttons -phenomena REVERSES if... -test subject was raised in a right->left reading culture (Ex. Iranians) -subjects are told to imagine numbers on a clock face

Answer 74

1. Naive Physics: People's misconceptions about physical laws such as those governing moving objects 2. Geographic Distances: nearby distances=exaggerated, distant distances=reduced

Answer 75

1. Gestalt Psychology | 2. Information-Processing Theory

Answer 76

The brain is holistic, parallel, and analog with self-organizing tendencies - there is a suddenness and lack of metacognition (no precursory conscious steps) when we perceive things (ex. see a dog first, not see the sep parts of dog and identify as seeing legs, tail, etc) - Focuses on trying to understand the organization and laws of our ability to acquire and maintain stable percepts in a noisy world - Focus on ILL DEFINED problems

Answer 77

Everything (natural systems and their properties) should be viewed as wholes, NOT as collections of parts and is only functional as a whole, not when parts are separated

Answer 78

Humans process the info they receive, rather than merely responding to stimuli (i.e. like a computer that analyzes info from the environment) -Focus on WELL DEFINED problems

Answer 79

Problems that do not have clear goals, solution paths, or expected solution

Answer 80

Problems that have specific goals, clearly defined solution paths, and clear expected solutions -allows for more initial planning than with ill defined problems

Answer 81

Tendency to use objects in their customary way | -originates from Gestalt psychology

Answer 82

Tendency to solve problems in a particular way even when a different approach might be more productive -originates from Gestalt psychology

Answer 83

Cognitive process of transferring info/meaning from a particular subject (i.e. the analogue/source) to another particular subject (i.e. the target) or a linguistic expression corresponding to such a process

Answer 84

Usefulness of analogies depends on problem's... -Similarity to the analog -Structure: best if parallel, but how similar it is to analogue's structure -Purpose (of solving problem) must be similar to purpose in the analogy

Answer 85

Technique used in Artificial Intelligence for controlling search in problem solving computer programs

Answer 86

1. Set up goal or subgoal 2. Calculate difference between current state and goal/subgoal state 3. Look for operator to reduce difference (this could be the creation of a new subgoal) 4. Apply operator 5. Repeat steps until subgoal is reached

Answer 87

1. overreliance on verbal protocols | 2. At best, GPS can approximate human processes, specifically only well-structured (algorithmic) problems

Answer 88

1. Knowledge 2. Social/Personal Significance 3. Creativity

Exam 3 Material (Ch 9-12) Flashcards

(112 cards)