Exam 2 Material (Ch 5-8) Flashcards
(148 cards)
1
Q
What is MAGICAL # 7±2?
A
It is the capacity limit of the number of info processing tasks that we can do simultaneously.
-On average, people can remember about 7 digits when recalling a set of numbers that were just read to them.
2
Q
What is SUBITIZING?
A
Ability to perceive/guess the right number of items presented accurately and rapidly.
Number of items must be less than or equal to 7.
3
Q
What is CHUNKING?
A
(i.e. Recoding)
Grouping items together into richer, more meaningful forms
4
Q
Describe the BROWN-PETERSON TASK.
A
Method: subjects see a set of 3 letters in each trial. after seeing the letters, they must do a distracting task (ex. counting backwards by 7 from a random number) for varying amounts of time (retention interval). then subjects are asked to recall the 3 letters.
Conclusion: performance in letter recall DECREASES as you INCREASE the length of distracting task (i.e. retention interval)
5
Q
What is RAPID DECAY?
A
Forgetting caused by passage of time.
6
Q
What is PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE?
A
Interference from older material on your memory for current info.
7
Q
Describe the experiment that Keppel and Underwood did to test proactive interference.
A
Method: Looked at the 1st trial of all subjects and then varied retention intervals of separate groups.
Result: Showed that the results of 1st trial of all subjects had the same level of ability of recalling despite having dif retention interval lengths.
Conclusion: showed proactive interference.
8
Q
Brown-Peterson performed another experiment, but this time he kept the retention interval constant but had his subjects go through multiple trials w/ this condition. What was his result?
A
As the number of trials increased, the ability to correctly recall decreased.
Conclusion: Shows interference results from similarity.
9
Q
What is Wicken’s idea of “Release from Proactive Interference?
A
If memory material is switched (ex. letters–>digits), interference should be reduced
-Level of interference reduction depends on how unalike the 2 materials are.
10
Q
How can “release from proactive interference” be seen as TEMPORAL DISCRIMINATION?
A
Because when there are multiple trials, you must discriminate between the most recent stimuli as well as earlier stimuli.
- Release of proactive interference is a result of ENHANCED temporal discrimination
- Temporal discrimination shows you the differences b/w material.
11
Q
What is THE STERNBERG MEMORY-SCANNING TASK?
A
Method: Subjects go through multiple trials: on each trials, there’s a memory set (typically 2-6 items; ex. F, R, J) and a probe. Subject has to indicate as fast as possible whether probe was in memory set.
Focus of Task: Response time (Starting when probe appears) NOT accuracy
Conclusion: Sternberg develops a 4 stage process model of memory scanning based on this task.
12
Q
Describe Sternberg’s 4 STAGES OF PROCESS MODEL.
A
- Encode probe–>recognize what the probe is (affected by clarity of probe)
- Scan–>affected by set size
- Binary decision–>Yes or No (affected by probability of response)
- Execute Response–>final decision; decide how to respond (affected by hand of response)
13
Q
What does Sternberg conclude about memory scanning and what is his explanation?
A
It is serial recall and exhaustive.
SERIAL b/c if in parallel then there’d be no need for response time to increase w/ set size.
EXHAUSTIVE b/c when we find the probe, we continue through the rest of the set. If self-terminating, once we found the probe we would stop scanning.
14
Q
Name some limitations of Sternberg’s Work.
A
- Serial, exhaustive scanning only works in an artificial setting, cannot be applied to the real world.
- Low ecological validity
- Repeated items in memory set have a shorter response time.
- Fast response to last item in memory set–subject could have used some of the scan time to start rehearsing
15
Q
Describe 2 models that could mimic serial, exhaustive scanning.
A
- Parallel models where scanning slows down as more items are being scanned.
- Cascade models where scans start at dif times but they could overlap if a later scan starts before a earlier scan finishes
16
Q
What is the PRIMACY EFFECT?
A
Additional attention/rehearsal to beginning items–>beginning items remembered best, middle items not so much
17
Q
What is the RATIO RULE?
A
Magnitude of recency effect is a function of ratio of interpresentation intervals to retention interval
(i.e. measure of temporal distinctiveness b/w materials)
18
Q
What is LONG TERM RECENCY EFFECT?
A
-You are better able at recalling items that have been read you to most recently (i.e. at end of list) than those that came before (i.e. middle of list)
19
Q
Describe the continuous-distractor task. What does it show?
A
Goal of Task: to prevent subjects from rehearsing
-If subject do a distracting task (ex. do math)….
1. after EVERY item in set
then LONG TERM RECENCY EFFECT occurs
2. after LAST item in set
then recency effect disappears
20
Q
What is the DUAL-TASK METHOD?
A
People can do 1 task (ex. reason about sentences) without much interference from other activities (ex. short lists/repeated syllables)
21
Q
What is WORKING MEMORY MODEL? (Baddeley & Hitch)
A
- System composed of specialized subsystems
- Intended to both hold info and carry out processing
- If tasks draw on common resources, then they will interfere with each other
22
Q
Describe the 2 studies Brooke did to show the distinction between VERBAL and SPATIAL WORKING MEMORY MODELS.
A
2 Tasks:
- Classify words in a sentence as nouns and non-nouns
- Classify angles in a letter as inside or outside
2 Methods of Response:
- Say out loud
- Point at ‘Y’ or ‘N’
Result: Saying response out loud is faster than pointing.
Conclusion: Verbal working memory processes faster than spatial working memory. Especially in 2nd task which require visual processing of both the angles in letter and finding ‘Y’ and ‘N’ to point to.
23
Q
Describe the working-memory span experiment.
A
Task: Read a series of sentences for meaning and remember the last word of each sentence.
-this requires both storage and processing
Result: subjects on average could remember 2-5 words
Conclusion: Memory span is approx. 2-5 words.
24
Q
What is MEMORY SPAN?
A
Longest list of items that a person can repeat back in order after being presented the list of items.
25
Name the components of the Baddeley & Hitch working-memory model.
1. Central executive
2. 2 Slave systems: visuospatial sketchpad and articulatory loop
3. Episodic buffer
26
What is function of the CENTRAL EXECUTIVE?
- Allocate resources
- Make decisions
- Control slaves
27
Describe 2 exps that provided evidence of the VISUOSPATIAL SKETCHPAD.
1. Rotation of mental images
Task: subjects shown an object, object then rotated and shown to subjects again; subject asked if they're the same
Result: Response time increased as amount of degree rotation increased
Conclusion: Rotating things mentally worked the same as rotating things in external world
2. Scanning of mental imagery
Task: Subjects shown a map w/ various landmarks and then asked to form mental images and go from one landmark to another. When they've been to all landmarks, they must press a button.
Result: Response time increased as distance between landmarks on map increased
28
What is BOUNDARY EXTENSION?
People tend to misremember more of a scene than was actually viewed, as if image boundaries are extended
-It's a combo of what you're shown + what you know
29
What is REPRESENTATIONAL MOMENTUM?
Misremembering location of object so that it's further along path of travel than when last seen.
-Emotion has an effect if shown multiple pictures with object being moved-->object keeps moving along path in your mind.
30
Name 5 pieces of evidence for the Articulatory Loop.
1. Acoustic Confusion
2. Acoustic Similarity Effect
3. Word Length Effect
4. Irrelevant Speech Effect
5. Effects of Articulatory Suppression
31
What is ACOUSTIC CONFUSION?
Misidentification of similar sounding letters
| -True if subject is shown list of letters verbally and visually
32
What is ACOUSTIC/PHONOLOGICAL SIMILARITY EFFECT?
People's first choice is to encode using sounds.
33
Describe an experiment that exhibits the acoustic similarity effect.
(Crowder)
Task: Subjects shown this list: Buy, By, Buy, Bye, Bye, By, Buy, Bye and then asked to recall
Result: Subjects must find strategies to tell difference b/w words (meaning, letter shape) when they can't use sound to help them remember.
34
What is the WORD LENGTH EFFECT?
Memory is like an audio track with a finite amount--it can only hold a certain length of words
35
Describe an experiment that exhibits the word length effect.
(Baddeley)
Task: Subjects given sets of words to see and then recall. With each trial, the number of syllables in each word in the set increases.
Result: As the number of syllables in a word increases, you can recall less words.
Conclusion: Shows that the Magic # 7±2 is due to the time it takes to SAY words NOT the NUMBER of words.
36
What is the IRRELEVANT SPEECH EFFECT?
Words from the background (ex. speech, tones) will accidentally get into your auditory loop and hinder memory/recall.
37
Describe an experiment that exhibits the irrelevant speech effect.
(Colle & Welsh)
Task: Subjects undergo trails where they're shown 8 words that they then must recall. Half of the subjects get background speech noise during trials.
Result: Subjects with background speech recalled less words than subjects without the background speech.
38
What is the EFFECT OF ARTICULATORY SUPPRESSION?
Process of inhibiting memory system by speaking while being presented an item(s) to remember.
Will wipe out the acoustic confusion, acoustic similarity, word length, and irrelevant speech effect.
39
What is the EPISODIC BUFFER?
The portion of working memory where information from different modalities and sources are bound together to form new episodic memories
(i.e. where you form an event/memory)
40
What are the 4 effects of working-memory capacity?
1. Controlling automatic responses
- when conflicting stroop responses (ex. writing the word "red" in blue ink) are rare, low-memory span subjects are more impaired
2. Ignoring distracting detail in text
- High-span subjects more likely to ignore irrelevant details/illustration in a text
3. Faster retrieval from long-term memory
- High-span subjects can generate more exemplars from categories (ex. Animals) faster than low-span subjects
4. Employ more complex reasoning skills
- High span subjects are better at difficult logic problems & at applying consistent ethical principles to moral reasoning principles
41
TASK SWITCHING: 1. define it. 2. describe an experiment regarding it.
Def: ability to mentally switch between tasks.
2 Tasks:
1. Subjects given a sheet with numbers and the directions to "add 3 to 1st #, subtract 6 from the 2nd #, add 3 to the 3rd # and substract 6 from the 3rd #.
2. Subjects given a sheet with numbers and words. Directions are to subtract 3 from each # and say the antonym of each word.
Results:
42
What are the 3 stages of memory?
1. Encoding
2. Storage
3. Retrieval
43
What are the types of information?
- Declarative
- includes 1. Semantic Memory=Facts and 2. Episodic Memory=events
- Non-declarative/Procedural
44
What is EBBINGHAUS' CHAINING THEORY OF SERIAL LEARNING?
-Associations between adjacent items is the primary basis for serial learning
45
What was the evidence that disproved the chaining theory?
Task: first, learn serial list to criterion then later learn paired associate list made up of adjacent items from serial list.
Result: performance of these subjects is no better than those in control group (had no serial list)
Conclusion: Chaining theory does not transfer to paired-associate learning
46
Name 2 Mnemonic devices
1. Method of Loci
| 2. Pegword Method
47
Give 3 functions of mnemonic principles.
1. Provides a structure for learning
2. By use of imagery or other associations, it forms a distinctive record of info
3. Guides rememberer through retrieval
48
What are the 2 assumptions of depth of processing?
1. Processing goes through ordered stages
| 2. Memorability depends upon depth to which info has been processed
49
Give some techniques that could lead to deep processing.
1. Elaborative rehearsal
- adding new info to pre-existing knowledge
2. Semantic orienting questions
- questions that help to define it (ex. how long? how pleasant? category membership?)
3. Self-orienting questions
- relates it to yourself
4. Dinctiveness/von Restorff/Isolation Effect
- how distinct is the word
50
What is the VON RESTORFF/ISOLATION EFFECT?
Words that are more distinctive and more likely to be remembered.
51
What is the METHOD OF LOCI?
1. Memorize a place (i.e. locus) full of things that're ordered in the room in the order of the things you want to talk about
2. As you talk and go from one thing to the next, you are traveling through this room of objects in your mind.
52
What is the PEGWORD MNEMONIC/METHOD?
1. Create a number system w/ an object for each number.
| 2. Then form image combining things you want to remember with each object and corresponding number.
53
What is the GENERATION EFFECT?
Info that you create yourself is better remembered than info presented to you
-It's important that words are compatible/related
54
Describe a study that showed the generation effect.
Task: Subjects are given a list of word pairs in which some they must read both words and others they must come up with the word's pair. Then they must recall all word-pairs.
ex. Lawyer-Attorney
ex. Hot- (opposite)C---
Result: Memory is better for generated words than for read words
55
Describe the SURVIVAL PROCESSING TEST.
Task: Subjects given list of unrelated words and asked to imagine they're stranded for several months in the grasslands of a foreign land w/out basic survival materials. Subjects then asked to rate each word to how relevant it is their their survival. Then asked to recall words.
Result: Survival processing is best in free recall.
Why: Because, easiest to recall items in order of importance to survival.
56
What is CLUSTERING?
Way of organizing info in memory
57
Describe an experiment that shows clustering.
Test: 60 word list with 15 words from 4 categories (animals, names, vegetables, professions) were shown to subjects and then subjects were asked to free recall words
Result: Although the 4 categories were mixed in the list, subjects recalled them by category.
58
What is the NEGATIVE REPETITION EFFECT?
Repetition can hurt recall if it leads you to organize items poorly
59
Describe an experiment that shows the negative repetition effect.
Test: 2 Groups: one gets 2 study phases of cue-target pairs and the other ...
60
What is the TIP OF THE TONGUE PHENOMENON?
People often show partial knowledge of word they're not able to retrieve
Test: read definitions to subjects; subjects asked if they're in a TOT state. If they are, they were asked to guess 1) # syllables 2) first letter and 3) similar words
61
What are the 2 types of retrieval?
1. Retroactive
- a learning experience impairs retention of an EARLIER experience
2. Proactive
- a learning experience impairs retention of LATER experiences
62
What is RESPONSE COMPETITION?*
Retrieval is competitive; cues that strengthen some items can impair retrieval of others
63
What is UNLEARNING?*
Loss of previously learned information when learning new/secondary information.
64
What is the ENCODING-SPECIFICITY PRINCIPLE?
- retrieval is cue dependent
- memory traces are NOT copies of events but rather complex records
- Difference b/w AVAILABLE memories and ACCESSIBLE MEMORIES
- a cue is effective to the extent that it overlaps w/ info contained n the memory trace
65
Define: Available Memories vs. Accessible Memories
AVAILABLE memories= those present in memory
ACCESSIBLE memories= those that can be retrieved using available cues
66
What is the NEGATIVE PART-SET CUING EFFECT?
More difficulty free recalling a list of words previously shown when given a cue (like a hint during recall) than if you were to free recall with being cued.
Why: retrieval is competitive (i.e. response competition)
67
What is INTENTIONAL ENCODING?
Encoding of info that you're expecting to receive.
68
What is ACCIDENTAL ENCODING?
Encoding of info that you've encountered unexpectedly.
69
Who is H.M.?
H.M.=Henry Molaison
Has a damaged hippocampus as a result of surgery for epilepsy
- loss of some memory function but also retained some as well
- little loss of pre-operation info
- verbal performance influenced by recent experiences
- improvement in motor skills w/out remembering
- emotional states could persist
70
How are EXPLICIT memory and IMPLICIT memory different?
EXPLICIT: Requires conscious recollection of a particular episode (ex. recall, recognition task)
IMPLICIT: Behavior on a task may be influenced by a previous episode even when the task doesn't require recollection of that episode (doesn't involve conscious awareness).
71
What is REPETITION PRIMING?
- Initial presentation of a stimulus influence the way an individual will respond to that stimulus when it is presented at a later time
- Individuals will be faster and more accurate at recognizing it
- Assesses implicit memory
72
Name the 2 types of amnesia.
1. Retrograde
| 2. Anterograde
73
What is RETROGRADE AMNESIA?
Disruption in memory for info acquired BEFORE the damage/trauma
Possible causes: Concussion, ECT
Symptoms: Lose memory of a span of weeks, months but over time, span shortens
74
What is ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA?
Disruption in memory for info acquired AFTER the damage/trauma
Possible Cause: Korsakoff's syndrome
75
What can Korsakoff's syndrome be a result of?
- Alcoholism
- Vitamin deficiency
- Poor diet
76
What is SUBLIMINAL PERCEPTION?
Ability to process a weak/barely discernible signal without being conscious of it.
77
Name a misconception of subliminal perception.
Belief that subliminal messages can control/change your behavior.
78
What is SEMANTIC MEMORY?
Our permanent memory store of general world knowledge (i.e. facts)
-not tied to a particular time or place of acquisition
79
What is a SEMANTIC NETWORK?
Method of representing info in semantic memory.
- Network=interrelated set of concepts in which each concept is represented by a node
- Nodes are linked to each other via pathways
- Pathways are labeled, directional associations b/w concepts
- Developed by Quillian
80
What is SPREADING ACTIVATION?
Mental activity of assessing and retrieving info from network
-Semantic network relies on this
81
What is COGNITIVE ECONOMY?
-Only non-redundant facts are stored; info is represented in the most economical way
- Based on concept of inheritance
- Semantic network structure is based on this
82
What is INHERITANCE (in terms of semantic network)?
Assumption that properties of higher nodes apply to lower connected nodes unless specifically negated
83
Describe the SENTENCE VARIATION TASK.
Task: Subjects are read sentences of differing lengths (i.e. # nodes in network) and decide if the sentence is true or false. Subjects are measured on time it takes them to respond and accuracy.
Result: As the number of nodes increased, the longer it takes subject to respond b/c they must run through more nodes in order to reach a decision.
84
What is a LIMITATION of the semantic network?
Unclear how a negative decision is reached.
85
What is the FEATURE COMPARISON MODEL?
-Way of representing info in semantic memory
-Concepts are represented by lists of features
-Sentences are verified by comparing lists
-High similarity=say "Yes"
-Low similarity=say "No"
-If intermediate, carry out slow comparison
process of necessary features
86
What is a LIMITATION of the feature comparison model?
Some effects in sentence verification may reflect semantic relatedness BUT NOT location in a network
-Semantic relatedness effect
87
What is SEMANTIC RELATEDNESS EFFECT?
Concepts that are highly interrelated can be judged more quickly than those with a lower degree of relatedness
88
What is the RESPONSE SIGNAL PROCEDURE?
People use different info depending on how much time they have to respond
-Low ecological validity
89
What is the response signal procedure evidence for?
Evidence for multiple processes that can be used to get to the same point
90
How does semantic memory relate to the world?
Via embodied cognition
91
What is EMBODIED COGNITION?
Concepts are seen as perceptual symbols
- Semantic memory is built up of sensory and motor elements derived from experience
- It is an interpretive system, NOT a recording system
- True of concepts b/c subjects are faster if some sensory modality was used in a previous trial
92
What is a limitation of embodied cognition?
Does not apply to abstract categories
| -Should rely on metaphors instead
93
What is SEMANTIC PRIMING?
Exposure to a prime that is similar to target item (ex. prime=dog, target=wolf) will result in faster response time to target item due to pathways between the 2 nodes
94
What is a MORPHEME?
Smallest grammatical unit of a word.
- Can be used as a semantic prime
ex. "psych" can be a prime for "psychology"
95
What is the LEXICAL DECISION TASK?
Task: Subjects must classify stimuli as either words or non-words.
Results: For words that are 1.similar to one another (ex. words are all animals) and 2. shorter, response time is faster than words that are 1. dissimilar and 2. longer
Conclusion: shorter words are faster to process through semantic network and seeing one word activates pathways in that category so if they're more words in that category, pathways have already been activated
-Proof of semantic priming
96
What is AUTOMATIC PRIMING?
Fast, positive (facilitation) unrelated to strategy or intention
97
What is STRATEGIC PRIMING?
Slow, positive (facilitation) or negative (inhibition), dependent on strategy.
98
Describe an experiment that tests ambiguous words and a cross-modal priming task.
Task: listen to passage while responding to visually presented stimuli in lexical decision task.
Result:
1. Immediate Testing: both meanings show priming (automatic)
ex. hearing "Bug" primes both "Spy" and "Ant"
2. Delayed By 3 Syllables Testing: Biased meaning shows enhanced priming, other meaning is inhibited (strategic priming)
ex. hearing "Bug" in context of recording devices leads to priming of "Spy" but not "Ant"
99
Does semantic priming occur for stimuli that a person never consciously perceives? Describe an experiment that proves/disproves this.
Task: Subjects are briefly presented with a word or blank field. Then they are presented a backward mask. Experimenter holds up 2 cards.
2 cards are either
1. "Present or Absent": word or blank field
2. About "Graphic Similarity": 2 words, 1 is physically similar to presented word
3. About "Semantic Similarity": 2 words, 1 is semantically similar to presented word
Result: Subjects who were presented the word long enough for them to identify had a higher accuracy and shorter response time than subjects who were flashed the word and couldn't consciously identify it but still, at highest SOA %correct is still very high for both groups and all types of cards presented.
Conclusion:
1. considerable processing is carried out on stimuli shown too briefly to be detected as priming
2. Processing is not carried out in fixed order
3. Semantic processing may be occurring before detection or graphic processes
4. semantic priming in lexical decisions can take place from primes shown too briefly to be detected
5. Semantic priming from unconsciously processed primes increases as a function of repetition of prime
100
What is the CLASSIC VIEW OF CATEGORIZATION?
- People create and use categories based on a system of rules
- These rules identify necessary/sufficient features (ex. "Bachelor"=unmarried human male)
- Learning a category involves learning the appropriate rules
- Criticized by philosopher, Ludwig Wittgenstein
- How do exceptions fall into these wide generalizations/categorizations?
101
What is CENTRAL TENDENCY (in terms of concepts)?
The best way to define categories is through ideal members (concepts=prototypes)
- These members differ in typicality where some are more typical than others (ex. Apple for Fruit; Robin for Bird)
- Subjects verify category membership faster for typical members
- Typical members are produced as examples faster
- Not all levels of categorization are equally natural
- There's a basic level of categorization which maximizes info
102
What is the role of exemplars in concepts?
- We remember particular examples that we encounter
| - Can judge category membership by comparison with remembered examples
103
Why are the prototype and exemplar representation of concepts probabilistic?
Probabilistic because categories reflect the probability/likelihoods across a person's experience.
104
What are the 3 ways that concepts can be represented?
1. Classic view
2. Prototype representation
3. Exemplar representation
105
What are AD HOC CATEGORIES?
Categories that people make up based on situational circumstances (ex. diet foods)
-Categories may not just be descriptive but rather explanations of "Why things are the way they are"
106
What are the 7 SINS OF MEMORY?
1. Transience
2. Absent-Mindedness
3. Blocking
4. Misattribution
5. Suggestibility
6. Bias
7. Persistence
107
Define: TRANSIENCE
Tendency to lose access to info through time
108
What is the FORGETTING CURVE?
Predicts the decline of memory over time when there's no attempt to retain it.
Things you rapidly forget:
- Names
- Spoken items (surface form of utterances)
109
Define: ABSENT MINDEDNESS
Everyday memory failures in remembering info and intended activities, often caused by insufficient encoding.
110
Define: BLOCKING
Retrieval failure b/c retrieval is a competitive process between....
1. retroactive interference
2. proactive interference
3. tip of the tongue states
4. negative part-set cuing effect
111
Describe method of RETRIEVAL-INDUCED FORGETTING.
Phase 1: subjects study list of words from categories (ex. Fruit-grape, Animal-Tiger, Fruit-apple, Job-lawyer)
Phase 2: subjects practice retrieval of some items (ex. Fruit-A..., Job-L...., Fruit-A...)
Test: Subjects try to recall all (including words not practiced in phase 2) words
Result: Recall of Non-practiced items is INHIBITED
112
Define: SOURCE-MONITORING
The ability to remember the source of a memory, be it something you encountered or something that you imagined
113
What is the cause of MISATTRIBUTION?
Break down of source-monitoring which leads to false memory
114
Describe the DRM PROCEDURE.
Task: Subjects are given a list containing sets of words, all related to a single (unpresented) critical item. Then asked to recall words
Result: false memory very high for critical memory
Conclusion: Activation-Monitoring Theory
115
What is the ACTIVATION-MONITORING THEORY?
Theory that false memory occurs as a result of...
1. Activation of critical items during encoding of list
2. Failure of memory-monitoring at time of test
116
Name 3 factors that affect false memory in the DRM task.
1. PRESENTATION DURATION
- False recall first rises then declines as presentation rate of the study is slowed down
2. PRESENTATION MODALITY
- False memory is higher is list is given auditorily rather than visually
3. PRESENTATION ENCODING
- If subject was asked to focus on items individually, false memory is lower than if subjects were asked to relate items together during encoding of the study list.
117
What is another name for SUGGESTIBILITY?
MIS-INFORMATION EFFECT
118
What are the 3 phases of the MIS-INFORMATION EFFECT?
1. Exposure to original event (ex. car crash)
2. Exposure to questions (including 1 potentially misleading one)
3. Test on memory designed to see if misleading question altered memory for original event
119
How does the way a question is formatted affect suggestibility in recall?
-Subjects are more likely to answer "yes" when the article before the item is "the" instead of "a" (ex. "the" car vs. "a" car)
-Adjectives mislead subject's recall
-Subjects give higher estimates when asked to
judge speed of cars that "smashed" into each
other than when cars "hit" each other
120
What is IMAGINATION INFLATION?
Imagination inflates the probability of a false memory.
| -Imagining that something happened increases later memory reports that it actually did happen.
121
Define: IMPLANTED MEMORIES
False memories of whole events
| -can be done when those close to subject convince subject that event actually happened
122
What are the 4 causes of the misinformation effect?
1. Memory impairment
2. Source misattribution
3. Misinformation acceptance
4. Verbal overshadowing
123
Define: MEMORY IMPAIRMENT
A genuine change/alteration in memory of an experienced event as a function of some later event; overwriting
-Subjects will usually respond based on misinformation quickly and w/ high confidence
124
Define: SOURCE MISATTRIBUTION
The inability to distinguish whether the original event or some later event was the true source of information.
125
Define: MISINFORMATION ACCEPTANCE
Subjects accept additional info as having been part of an earlier experience without actually remembering that info; biased guessing
-Misinformation effect is reduced/eliminated when misinformation is not an option
126
Define: VERBAL OVERSHADOWING
Talking about an event can impair memory for an event
- ex. describing each of a set of faces impairs later memory/recall for the face
- also works with scenes and colors
127
Define: BIAS
The tendency for knowledge, beliefs, and feelings to distort recollection of previous experience
128
Define: HINDSIGHT BIAS
People think things are the way things were
| -People remember things from the past as being better than they actually were
129
Define: PERSISTENCE
The tendency to remember facts/events that one would rather forget; rumination
130
Describe some characteristics of POST TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER (PTSD).
- Rare/absent when there is no memory of the event
- Most common when explicit memory is strongest (ex. recent or self-relevant event)
- Form of memory persistence
131
Define: AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMORY
One's lifetime/collection/narrative of personal memories
- Rapid forgetting leads to strong recency effects
- but there are exceptions like old classmates recognizing each other after 50 yrs
132
Define: INFANTILE AMNESIA
- type of autobiographical forgetting
| - little to no memory for events in first few years of life
133
Name 4 possible explanations for infantile amnesia.
1. Repression
2. Encoding-specificity principle
3. Development of sense of self
4. Result of change in nervous system
134
What are REMINISCENCE BUMPS?
Superior memory than would otherwise be expect for life events around the age of 20 (like 16-25)
-it's an exception to recency effects in autobiographical memory
135
Describe the GALTON-CROVITZ TECHNIQUE. What does it show?
Task: Subjects given words and then have to report first personal memory that comes to mind.
Result: those with superior memories remember more than those who don't
Shows presence of reminiscence bumps
136
What are FLASHBULB MEMORIES?
Very detailed memories of where they were at the time of an emotionally important event (ex. assassination, explosion)
-Could involve deep processing, self processing, distinctiveness (von Restorff effect)
137
How is memory a reconstructive process?
Involves combining elements from the original event with existing knowledge (reconstruction)
138
Define: SCHEMAS
Stored framework or body of knowledge about some topic
139
Define: SCRIPTS
Large scale knowledge structures that guide interpretation and comprehension of daily experience (ex. restaurant, office visit)
- Scripts are activated by headers
- Default values stored in memory unless explicitly contradicted
- Inspired by issues in artificial intelligence and social psychology
140
Describe an experiment that looked into the extent that reconstruction is an active process.
Task: Subjects given a list including one of these pairs: - 3 turtles are sitting BESIDE a log -a fish swam under them. OR -3 turtles are sitting ON a log -a fish swam under them.
Result: ONLY subject who received 2nd pair would falsely recognize "A fish swam under the log"
Conclusion: Reconstruction is active b/c can be distorted by other/unrelated knowledge
141
Define: METAMEMORY
Knowledge about one's own memory capacity
142
Define: CRYPTOMNESIA
Unconscious plagiarism
| -due to source monitoring
143
What are the 2 kinds of memory monitoring?
1. Feeling of knowing
| 2. Feeling of learning
144
Define: FEELING OF KNOWING
Your prediction as to whether you would recognize info you can't recall
145
Define: FEELING OF LEARNING
- Immediate
- Initial feelings that you get about whether you're learning
- Delayed
- Later feelings that you get about whether you've learned
146
Define: DESTINATION MEMORY
Remembering places that you've been, people you've already met.
147
Define: PROSPECTIVE MEMORY
The ability to remember to do something in the future.
148
What are the 2 kinds of prospective memory?
1. Event Based
- Remembering to do something a certain event occurs
2. Time Based
- Remembering to do something based on the passage of time (more difficult)
