exam 2 Flashcards by Cassie Klein

if lesioned, subject will show memory deficits, this concludes that this is included in memory function

hippocampus

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part of the limbic system
anatomical substrate for emotion
includes the amygdala and hippocampus

limbic lobe

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if lesioned, subject will show docility, tameness, placidity
this shows it is an excitatory structure

amygdala

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if lesioned, subject will show rage
this shows it is an inhibitory structure

septum

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fornix
mammillothalamic tract
diffuse fibers
cingulum
stria terminalis

Papez’ circuit

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gray matter

cerebral cortex

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longitudinal fissure

divides cortex into symmetrical halves

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central sucus

dorsal surface of cortex and somewhat posterior to the center

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lateral fissure

runs posteriorly and dorsally on lateral surface

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initiates voluntary movement, involved in motor coordination, abstract thinking, involved in speech

frontal lobe

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subserves somesthesis, kinesthesis, and taste

parietal lobe

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subserves audition and olfaction, involved in some memory functions

temporal lobe

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subserves vision

occipital lobe

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the study of differences among different types of cortical areas

architectonics

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6 fundamental layers

neocortex

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4 to 5 layers (cingulate cortex in limbic system)

transitional cortex

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3 to 4 layers (i.e. hippocampus in limbic system)

paleocortex

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6 layers, layers 2&4 are sensory, laters 5&6 are motor, 1&3 are association

neocortex

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brodmann’s classification

numbers are assigned to brain areas and are associated with different functions

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3,1,2 brodmann’s classification

primary sensory areas for taste, some thesis, and kinesthesis

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5,7 brodmann’s classification

association areas for somesthesis and kinesthesis

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4 brodmann’s classification

primary motor area, initiates voluntary movement

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6 brodmann’s classification

premotor areas, initiates motor coordination

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8 brodmann’s classification

frontal eye fields, motor area concerned with conscious movement of eyes

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9-12 brodmann's classification

areas involved in abstract thinking

41 brodmann's classification

primary sensory area for hearing

42&43 brodmann's classification

association areas for hearing

44 brodmann's classification

primary speech area

17 (striate cortex) brodmann's classification

primary visual cortex

18 & 19 brodmann's classification

association visual areas

white matter

fiber tracts of the cerebral hemispheres (part of corpus striatum)

have their cell bodies in the cortex of one hemisphere and pass in a great white sheet to the other hemisphere

commissural fibers

connect one part of the cortex to another part of the in the same hemisphere

association fibers

radiate upward to the cortex from the thalamus and other subcortical areas (sensory)

afferent/corticopetal fibers

project downwards from the cortex to subcortical areas (motor)

efferent or corticofugal fibers

membranes surrounding entire CNS

meninges

thick, though, and protective

dura mater (outer)

thin weblike sheet of tissue

arachnoid mater

thin and delicate (inner)

pia mater

space between arachnoid mater and Pia mater, filled with cerebrospinal fluid

subarachnoid space

within the brain and spinal fluid

the ventricular system

two ventricles _______ _____, are four in each hemisphere

lateral ventricles

the lateral ventricles connect with each other and with the ____ ____ located in midline in the thalamus and hypothalamus

third ventricle

the third ventricle is connected with the ____ ____ which is contained in pons and medulla

fourth ventricle

the fourth ventricle joins to the _____ ____ that runs the length of the spinal cord

central canal

cerebrospinal fluid is manufactured in a _____ ____ which is found in the ventricles

choroid plexus

lateral ventricles, third ventricles, fourth ventricles, central canal

routes of circulation of cerebrospinal fluid (lateral ventricles)

subarachnoid space, down posterior surface of spinal cord, up anterior surface of spinal cord, arachnoid villi, absorbed into venous sinuses of the brain

ventricles

loss of motor ability

paralysis

loss of sensory ability

anesthesia

distortion of sensory ability, tingling and burning sensation

paresthesia

loss of ability to walk in a skilled manner, due to destruction of the gracilis and cuneate tracts, a sensory problem

locomotor ataxia

polio

destroys motor ability, damage to ventral horn in the spinal cord polio at a higher level in the CNS is bulbar polio (medulla)

disease of the lateral corticospinal tract, destroying voluntary movement, demyelinating disease aka lou gehrigs disease

amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

demyelinating disease involving several tracts (sensory and/or motor)

multiple sclerosis

shingles

disease of lateral horn of spinal cord, inflammation of dorsal root of nerve, goes from dorsal root into lateral horn, characterized by tenderness of the skin and skin eruptions, caused by a virus

parkinsons disease

disorder characterized by muscle tremors that occur when the person attempts to hold their hand still, due to deficiency of dopamine in basal ganglia

neurodegenerative disease that is characterized by profound personality changes and intellectual impairment, including memory loss (affects frontal Cortex and hippocampus)

alzheimers disease

outside of the cell, beta amyloid (with Alzheimers)

plaques

inside of cell, tangles (with Alzheimers)

tau

an abnormal proliferation of glial cells and meninges cells

tumor

blockage of flow of cerebrospinal fluid

hydrocephalus

disturbance in shape and tone of muscle

dystrophy

progressive muscular weakness, lymphocytes produce antibodies that attack receptors on muscle cells at the neuromuscular junction, thus the nerve impulses are blocked

myasthenia gravis

potentials in neurons are measured by

micro electrode recordings from the cell

a difference of electrical charge on 2 sides of the membrane

polarization

recorded from axon

resting potential

large negative protein ions

anions (a-)

potassium ions

positive change on the outside of the membrane is due to the presence of

sodium ions

negative charge on the inside of the membrane is due to the presence of

potassium ions

na+ rush in k+ already inside large anions on inside can't get out cl- on outside

action potenttial

k+ diffuse out na+ are pushed out and k+ are pulled back in this process if regulated by na pump

resting potential

depolarization reverse of polarization repolarization

action potential summarizes

increase in excitability as the neuron moves towards threshold1`

period of latent addition

no stimulus, no matter how great, is capable of stimulating as a response`

absolute refractory period

a stronger than normal stimulus is capable of exciting a response

relative refractory period

conduction of nerves impulses along an axon is _______, action potentials do not grow weaker as they travel along the membrane

nondecremental

an axon fires completely or not at all (doesn't apply to dendrites and cell body)

all or none law

the propagation of inaction potential from node to node of myelinated fibers

saltatory conduction

when axons reach their final destinations, they typically branch into a number of fine collaterals at the end in small swellings called terminal buttons the buttons represent the end of the axon and it is at these small swellings that information is transferred from one cell to another

neural communications

synapses imposes a delay in the transmission process (delay of 0.5msec) inhibition of transmission, as well as excitation, can occur at the synapse inhibitory and excitatory conditions at the synapse may persist over relatively long time periods

synaptic transmission

found in presynaptic terminals they are sites where neurotransmitters are synthesized, stored, and released

synaptic vesicles

depolarization of membrane allows entry of ca+ ca++ causes vesicles to fuse with plasma membrane neurotransmitter released neurotransmitter binds to receptor, na+ gates open (depolarization)

summary of synaptic transmission

the potential that arises in the somatodendritic structure is called a _______ _____ this requires a specific excitant (neurotransmitter) a graded potential that can build up with excitation arriving simultaneously from different axon terminals

postsynaptic potential

the combined influences of many neurotransmitter releases at different locations on the postsynaptic membrane at a particular moment in time

spatial summations

repeated excitation, the combined effects of neurotransmitter release over time

temporal summation

the neurotransmitter makes the dendrites and cell body of the postsynaptic cell more permeable to positively charged sodium ions the result is partial depolarization/graded potential

excitatory postsynaptic potential (epsp)

the neurotransmitter hyper polarizes the dendrites and cell body of the postsynaptic cell its now more difficult to stimulate the postsynaptic cell

inhibitory postsynaptic potential (ipsp)

stimulate or inhibit the dendrites and cell body of another neuron taken back into the axon from which it was liberated be inactivated in a reaction analyzed by an enzyme

fate of a neurotransmitter

bind to their own neuron's transmitter molecules located on the presynaptic membrane their usual function is to monitor number of transmitter molecules in the synapse to reduce subsequent release when they are low

autoreceptor

one electrode placed over the brain area one electrode is placed over the ear lobe (for grounding)

monopolar recording

on electrode is placed over the brain area one electrode is placed over another brain area

bipolar recording

1/2-4 cps characteristic of deep sleep of slow wave sleep

delta waves

4-7 cps found in young children, in the adult its like the twilight state, which is experienced fleetingly upon waking or drifting off into sleep

theta waves

8-12 cps characteristic of relaxed wakefulness

alpha waves

13-30 cps characteristic of alert, wakeful state, found in one stage of sleep REM, or paradoxical sleep which is associated with dreaming

beta waves

40+ cps associated with highest state of focus

gamma waves

acetylcholine - biosynthesis: choline acetyltransferase - degradation:

acetylcholinesterase

catecholamines (CA) - DA,NE, E - biosynthesis: tyrosine hydroxylase l-dopa: aromatic amino acid decarboxylase DA: dopamine-beta-hydroxylase NE: phenylethanolmine-N-methyl transferase -degradation:

monoamine oxidase (MAO)

serotonin - biosynthesis: tryptophan hydroxylase, aromatic amino acid decarboxylase -degradation:

monoamine oxidase (MAO)

gama aminobutyric acid (GABA)- inhibitory neurotransmitter - biosynthesis: glutamic acid decarboxylase - degradation:

GABA transaminase

peptides that play a role in neurotransmission are referred to as ______ among the most interesting of these are the endorphins frequently referred to as endogenous opiates

neuropeptides

- produce and release ACH - motor neurons which innervate striated (skeletal) muscles - central nervous system - preganglionic parasympathetic fibers - postganglionic parasympathetic fibers - preganglionic sympathetic fibers

cholinergic fibers

- produce and release noriphenephrine - postganglionic sympathetic fibers -CNS

noradrenergic fibers

- produce and release epinephrine - CNS

adrenergic fibers

- produce and release dopamine - CNS

dopaminergic fibers

- produce and release serotonin (5-HT) - CNS

serotonergic fibers

- produce and release GABA - CNS

gabaergic fibers

1. synthesis 2. storage in synaptic vessicles 3. breakdown of any neurotransmitter leaking from the vessicle 4. exocytosis 5. inhibitory feedback via autoreceptors 6. activation of postsynaptic receptors 7. deactivation of reuptake or enzymatic degradation

steps in neurotransmitter action

- drugs that mimic or enhance the activity of a neurotransmitter - drugs increase the synthesis of neurotransmitter molecules (increasing the amount of precursor) - drug increases the number of neurotransmitter molecules by destroying degrading enzymes - drug increases release of neurotransmitter molecules form terminal buttons - drug binds to auto receptors and blocks their inhibitory effect on neurotransmitter release - drug binds to postsynaptic receptors and either activates them or increases the effect of them on neurotransmitter molecules - drug blocks activators of neurotransmitter molecules by blocking degradation or reuptake

drug agonists

- drugs that block activity of a neurotransmitter - deug blocks synthesis of neurotransmitter molecules (destroying synthesizing enzymes) - drug causes neurotransmitter molecules to leak from vesicles and be destroyed by degrading enzymes - drug blocks release of transmitters from terminal buttons - drug activates auto receptor and inhibits neurotransmitter release - drug is a receptor blocker, binds to the postynspatic receptors, and blocks effect of neurotransmitter

drug antagonist

barbiturates ethyl alcohol (ethanol) halcion ambien (most commonly prescribed)

sedative-hypnotics

benzodiazepines libirum valium xanax enhance inhibitory effects of GABA busiprone

antianxiety drugs

caffeine- ne stimulant nicotine- ach receptor stimulant amphetamine- inhibitor of NE and DA reuptake and increased release of NE and DA cocaine- inhibitor of NE and DA reuptake and increased release of NE and DA

stimulants

lysergic acid diethyl amide (LSD)- 5-ht agonist psilocybin (found in certain mushrooms)- 5-ht agonist mescaline (type of cactus, peyote)- structural resemblance to NE (also some 5-ht agonistic actions) phencyclidine (PCP)- opioid receptor agonist, high dose of PCP can enhance seroterngic activity, partially by inhibiting 5-HT reuptake

psychotomimetics, psychedelics, and hallucinogens

- cannaboid receptors are widely distributed in the brain, but the pattern is uneven - depending upon concentration, this can either enhance or inhibit release of various neurotransmitters - changes in hippocampal operations are probably responsible for the distortions in memory and cognitive performance

tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) (marijuana, psychotomimetic, psychedelics, and hallucinogens)

-antipsychotic drugs/antischizophrenic drugs - chlorpromazine- da receptor/blocker - clozapine- da receptor blocker

psychotherapeutic drugs

- antidepressants - inhibitors of NE reuptake (norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors: reboxetine) - inhibitors of 5-HT (SSRIs: prozac) - inhibitors of both serotonin and norepinephrine (SNRIs: Cymbalta) - mood stabilizing drugs: lithium carbonate

antidepressants (psychotherapeutic drugs)

- aspirin - opiates (morphine, heroine, fentanyl)

analgesic drugs (painkillers)

- the least amount of physical energy that can be perceived (50%) of the time

absolute threshold

the least amount of physical energy that can be perceived as being different from a standard (50%) of the time there is always a standard to compare it to

differential threshold

maximum energy sensed (increasing stimulus energy does not increase the sensation)

terminal threshold

a study of the relationship between physical energy and experience

psychophysics

wavelength, intensity

light stimulus

color or hue

light experience

frequency, intensity

sound stimulus

pitch, noise

sound experience

experimenter (_E) presents randomly varying intensities of the stimulus

method of constant stimuli

the subject (_S) varies the intensity of the stimulus themselves

method of adjustment

the experimenter starts well above threshold and gradually decrease the intensity of a stimulus in a series of steps, then E starts well below the threshold and gradually increases the intensity of a stimulus in a series off steps

method of limits (staircase method)

(change in intensity/original intensity)= constant - if original intensity if too low, not much bust be added to detect a difference, the original intensity is high, a great deal must be added to detect a difference Weber's law holds up well for original low and medium intensities, breaks down at a high original intensities because differential threshold has been reached

weber's law (utilized with differential threshold)

immediate impression that senses make on the brain the process of detecting the presence of stimuli

sensation

higher-order processing of integrating, recognizing, and interpreting complex patterns one sensations

perception

conversion of physical energy into nerve impulses (occurs at sensory receptors) (eye tranduces light into nerve impulses, and ear traduces sound into nerve impulses)

transduction

- 1826, Johannes muller published "specific nerve energies", explaining how nerve fibers code sensory stimuli - greeks used to assume that given stimulus impressed its characteristic directly onto brain - muller noted gross sensory quality depends on which nerve is stimulated, not how - not the stimulus that determines gross sensory quality, but rather the receptors and neurons activated by stimulus

law of specific nerve energies

the receptor system is most sensitive, it requires least a mount of energy - for eye/vision, this is light

adequate stimulus

the organism will respond, but it requires a great deal of energy - for eye/vision, this is pressure on the eyeball, electric shock, and mechanical irritation

inadequate stimulus

the sensory receptors generate a specific pattern of neural activity allows for nervous system to construct a representation of the physical world, this message contains information about stimuli in the physical environment

coding

- subserve pain, warm, cold, some touch (diffuse light touch)

unspecialized neurons (free nerve endings)

subserve vision and olfaction

specialized neurons

subserve auction, balance, taste, specific light touch, pressure, and kinesthesis

specialized epithelial cell- neuron combinations

decrease in a réponse of the receptor and a decrease in the perceived intensity of a stimulus resulting from a constant rate of stimulation, caused by receptor fatigue - olfaction and taste adapt most readily

adaptation

loss of attention to a stimulus caused by repetition or lack of novelty

habituation

a feedback mechanism from the brain to the receptors, inhibiting incoming sensory information

sensory gating

- recording electrode was placed on the auditory nerve of a cat - a noise was sounded, auditory nerve responded - next, a rat was placed in the box with the cat, noise was sounded, auditory nerve did not respond, rat was removed from the box, noise was sounded, auditory nerve responded

experiment of Hernandez-peon

occur when the receptors continue to respond after the stimulus ceases acting on them

afterimages

usually results from brief, intense stimulation

positive afterimages

result from prolonged, moderate stimulation

negative afterimages

smaller chamber in from of the lens, contains aqueous humor

aqueous chamber

larger chamber behind the lens containing vitreous humor

vitreous chamber

the outermost layer of the eye, contains a translucent front called the cornea

sclera layer

prevents escape of light from the eye and contains blood vessels

choroid layer

contains receptors for vision, innermost layer

the retina,

outside of the eyeball, moves the eyeball

extrinsic muscles

inside of eyeball, controls the lens (ciliary muscles) and pupil (iris)

intrinsic muscle

the first group is a row of primary receptor neurons which ar responsive to light

rods and cones- specialized neurons

bipolar neurons bring impulses to the neurons of the _____ _____

ganglion cells

light-- cornea-- aqueous humor-- lens-- vitreous humor-- ganglion cells-- bipolar cells-- receptors-- transduction receptors- bipolar cells- ganglion cells- to the brain

pathway of light and transduction

pick up information from receptor cells and spread effects to several bipolar cells

horizontal cells

pick up information from bipolar cells and spread effects to several ganglion cells

amacrine cells

concentrated in the central part of the back of the retina and become sparser in the periphery

cones

more numerous in the periphery and absent in the center of the retina

rods

the part of the retina centered behind the lens is the _____ ____ or yellow spot

macula lutea

the ____ ____ is the center of the macula lutea the area of the sharpest vision the bipolar and ganglion cells are drawn aside as an oblique angle so the cones ar more directly exposed to the light rays

fovea centralis

- functions at night - low illumination - don't see color - most sensitive in the greenish part of the spectrum - most numerous in periphery - much convergence

duplicity theory of rods

- functions during the day - high illumination - see color - most sensitive in yellowish spectrum - most numerous in central retina - create point-to-point connection (greater visual acuity)

duplicity theory of cones

all variations of light may be specific in terms of 2 variables ____ and ___

wavelength and intensity

the unit commonly employed for designation of wavelength is ______

millimicron

the vertebrate eye is sensitive to wavelengths between ____ and ____ millimicrons

380 and 760

this depends on the size of the pupil through which light enters the eye the size of the pupil depends on this the narrower the aperture, the sharper the focus of the retinal image focus is best when illumination is high and pupil is constricted

retinal illumination

exam 2 Flashcards

(172 cards)