Exam 2 Flashcards

Question

Review two-dimensional attribution theory.

Answer 1

Illistrates the four combinations of possible attributions people make. Bernard Weiner proposed that attributions can be classified along two dimensions: **internal/external** and **stable/unstable.** *Internal-external: *Refers to whether the cause is located within the person (internal) or outside the person (external). *Stable-unstable:* Refers to whether the cause is likely to remain the same over time (stable) or change (unstable)

Answer 2

taking credit for our success but deny blame for failure: internal attributions for success and external attributions for failure.

Answer 3

The tendency for actors to make external attributions and observers to make internal attributions. Relevant to situation in which one person (the observer) is attending to someone else's (the actor's) behavior.

Answer 4

Focuses on observer side of actor /observer bias. The tendency for observers to attribute other people's behavior to internal or dispositional causes and to downplay situational causes. Meaning we fail to consider exterrnal factors and assume someones actions correspond with their personality.

Answer 5

Actor/observer bias takes account of both external and internal attributions. where they look at attributes of their own behavior to a situation (external) and attributes an individual's behavior based on the person itself. Fundamental Attributions error only focuses on the internal part. We automatically assume thats someone's actions correspond with their personality.

Answer 6

Mental shortcuts that provide quick estimates about the likelihood of uncertain events.

Answer 7

A feeling state that is not clearly linked to some event. You may not know why ur in a good/ bad mood but you do know that you feel happy or sad.

Answer 8

The automatic response that something is good (positive affect) or bad (negative affect). We map out emotions into a good/bad dimension. Positive affect= good emotions (happy, joy, love, bliss) negative affect= bad emotions (anger, anxious, fear, disgust)

Answer 9

A powerful and clearly unified feeling state, such as anger or joy.

Answer 10

A quick response of liking or disliking toward something, or as a good or bad feeling toward something , and may occur outside of consciousness.

Answer 11

The idea that people judge something as good or bad by asking themselves if they feel good or bad about it. If they feel good then they conclude that the thing is good and vise versa.

Answer 12

The idea that emotion is determined by how an event in the environment is appraised (e.g., evaluated, interpreted, explained) In other words, emotions are adaptive responses that reflect appraisals of events in the enviroment that are significant for the person's well-being.

Answer 13

The proposition that positive emotions expand an individual's attention and mind-set and promote increasing one's resources. Positive emotions broaden and expand an individual for later hard times. * ex: joy broadens by creating urges to play, push the limits, and become creative. These broaden mindsets build an individual's physical, intellectual, and social resources.

Answer 14

The propostition that expressing negative emotions produces a healthy release of those emotions and therefore good for the psyche. Later found that it reinforces aggressive behavior and that "good feeling" after venting is just your arsoual levels going up.

Answer 15

The idea that feedback from the face muscles evokes or magnifies emotions because the brain reacts to what the facial muscles are doing. So smiling can magnify happiness.

Answer 16

The proposition that the bodily processes of emotions come first, and then the mind's perception of these bodily reactions creates the subjective feeling of emotion. When something happens, your body and brain supposedly perceive it and respond to it, and these physiological events form the basis for the emotion you feel.

Answer 17

The idea that people rely on emotional processess to evaluate risk, with the result that their judgements may be biased by emotional factors. People react to risky situations based on how severe the worst outcomes is and how likely it is to occur. If their gut tells them the situation it too risky, they avoid it.

Answer 18

The idea that emotions has two components: a bodily state of general arousal and a cognitive label that specifies the emotion. Something like a T.V program. The arousal is the knob that controls the volume from mute to loud: it determines that there is going to be an emotion, and how strong it will be. The cognitive label is like the channel: It dictates which emotion will be felt.

Answer 19

**Guilt:** an unpleasant moral emotion associated with a specific instance in which one has acted badly or wrongly. *Focuses on the action. * **Shame:** a moral emotion that, like guilt, involves feeling bad but, unlike guilt, *spreads to the whole person.*

Answer 20

Guilt motivates people to do good acts, such as apologizing or to make amends. It also focuses on relationships that are beneficial or close to us. Apologies can help repair damages to relationships. 1. the implicit agreements that the act was wrong. 2.suggest that the person will try not to repeat action again. 3. counteract any implications that the bad action meant the person doesn't care about the relationship.

Answer 21

The ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth.

Answer 22

*Perceiving emotions* : most basic psychological processes. Ability to recognize how you and those around you are feeling *Managing emotions* : most psychologicaly intergrated processes. The ability to be open to feelings, modulate them in oneself and others to promote personal understanding and growth. *Facilitating thought* : the ability to generate an emotion and then reason with this emotion. *Understanding Emotions:* the ability to understand complex emotions and how emotions can transition from one stage to another

Answer 23

Paul Ekman and colleagues identified 6 basic emotions that can be reliably inferred from facial expressions: Anger, Surprise, Disgust, Happiness (or joy), Fear, and Sadness

Answer 24

An enduring evaluation, positive or negative, of people, object, or ideas. Global evaluations towards some object or issue.

Answer 25

They help us adjust to new situations, seeking out things in our enviroment that reward us and avoiding those things that punish us. Attitudes can even be a matter of life or death, influencing whether people take risks.

Answer 26

a) *evaluative:* involves a like or dislike b) directed at an *“object”* c) *relatively enduring:* more stable than emotions, relatively consistent, hard to change d) are assumed to *influence behavior*--but this is often hard to prove! i.e.: when does prejudice leads to discrimination e) *attitudes are motivational:* more so than habits or reflexes -liking Taylor Swift will motivate me to buy more Taylor Swift merchandise f) *attitudes are mostly learned* -therefore can be unlearned

Answer 27

1. **Cognitive:** perceptions of facts, opinions, etc. regarding attitude object 2. **Affective:** emotions and feelings (strong or weak) about attitude object 3. **Behavioral:** intentions to act toward the attitude object (e.g., plans, goals)

Answer 28

**Explicit attitudes** are ones we consciously endorse and can easily report. **Implicit attitudes**, on the other hand, are attitudes that exist outside of our conscious awareness. Implicit attitudes stem from early experiences and explicit attitudes are based on more recent experiences

Answer 29

Different evaluations of the same attitude object held by the same person. (Perhaps one is deliberate, and the other automatic) * **Automatic attitudes** (*implicit attitudes*) * Very fast, evaluative, “gut-level” responses that people don’t think a great deal about * **Deliberate attitudes** (*explicit attitudes*) * Reflective responses that people think more carefully about

Answer 30

Research has shown that people who claim to be non-racist can still exhibit implicit racial bias. This is because *implicit attitudes* are often formed early in life and are influenced by cultural stereotypes and prejudices, even if we consciously reject these biases.

Answer 31

* **Direct measure** - Self-report measure, written responses, interviews * **Indirect measures** -- Behavioral measures (e.g., seating distance, nonverbal behaviors, product choice) -- Physiological measures (e.g., heart rate, pupillary dilation, EMG, EEG) -- Implicit measures (e.g., IAT, sequential priming)

Answer 32

Tendency to come to like things simply because they are encountered repeatedly. Does not work on things for which we have an initial dislike

Answer 33

If you like someone the more you are exposed to that person the more you will end up liking them. If there is song that you dislike the more you hear it the more you end up hating it.

Answer 34

* Classical conditioning: can help develop and attitude towards something you didn't have an attitude towards before. Companies associate their products with famous people so we gain a positive attitude towards advertised products. * Operant Conditioning: If you are praised for doing something well you will gain a positive attitude towards said thing. If you are punished for something you will gain a negative attitude toward that something. * Social Learning: many teens learn what attitudes are acceptable by watching whether other teens are rewarded or punished for endorsing certain music, style, and convictions.

Answer 35

Is the use of game playing elements (e.g. rewards such as points, badges, levels, virtual currency) in non-game contexts (e.g., education). Can improve attitudes toward subjects that students often have negative attitudes about, such as math.

Answer 36

The finding that people's attitudes become more extreme as they reflect on them. Even just thinking about an issue can move a person towards holding a more extreme attitude. May generate new ideas.

Answer 37

People are more accepting of evidence presented by ingroup members than by outgroup members. In class talked about which soccer player is the best based on their achievements

Answer 38

Assume inconsistency is unpleasant. We seek new info or reinterpret old info to reduce the feeling of inconsistency.

Answer 39

1. Specify conditions required for consistency and inconsistency of cognitions 2. Assume inconsistency is unpleasant 3. Specify conditions that are needed to restore consistency

Answer 40

Cognitive dissonance theory: inconsistencies produce psychological discomfort. Leads people to rationalize their behavior or change their attitudes. * People want to maintain consistency

Answer 41

People are willing to do questionable things for large sums of money. But when they perform the same action for a small amount of money, people feel a need to rationalize and justify those actions, so they change their attitude.

Answer 42

Effort justification: when people suffer, work hard, or make sacrifices, they will try to convince themselves that it is worthwhile

Answer 43

Cognitive dissonance experienced after making a difficult choice, typically reduced by increasing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and decreasing the attractiveness of rejected alternatives.

Answer 44

If the decision was a close call, you can reduce dissonance afterwards by deciding that what you chose was far better than what you rejected.

Answer 45

*Gordon Allport*: Attitude is the most important concept in psychology *Alan Wicker*: Attitudes are a trivial, peripheral phenomenon. They don't cause behavior nor predict it well. A-B problem

Answer 46

the problem of inconsistency between attitudes (A) and behaviors (B).

Answer 47

TPB: Predicts behavior based on behavioral intentions which consist of 3 factor: Behavioral attitude, Subjective norms, and Percieved behavioral control 1. *Behavioral attitude*- belief that engaging in the behavior will lead to certain outcomes. 2. *Subjective norms*- An individual's perceptions about whether significant others think they should (or should not) perform the behvaior in question. 3. *Percieved behavioral control*- Individual's beliefs about whether they can actually perform the behavior in question.

Answer 48

* **Beliefs** are pieces of information about something. They can be facts or opinions. * **Attitudes,** on the other hand, are evaluations of something. They reflect whether we like or dislike something, approve or disapprove of it.

Answer 49

Once beliefs form, they are resistant to change, even if the information on which they are based is discredited.

Answer 50

Trying out the opposite theory to whatever theory you initially believe will reduce or eliminate belief perseverance.

Answer 51

The idea that beliefs play a central role in helping people cope with and recover from misfortunes. Basically that whatever happened could have been worse, that person was somewhat lucky.

Answer 52

**Downward comparison**: the act of comparing oneself to people who are worse off **Upward comparison**: the act of comparing oneself to people who are better off

Answer 53

Assumptive worlds: people live in social worlds based on certain beliefs (assumptions) about reality 1. The world is benevolent 2. The world is fair and just 3. I am a good person

Answer 54

Basically, people are nice, life is safe, and one can count on good things happening most of the time

Answer 55

People generally get what they deserve and deserve what they get. If you follow the rules and treat others with fairness and kindness, you can expect to be treated that way yourself.

Answer 56

I am someone of value and therefore deserve good things to happen to me

Answer 57

We cope by changing those belief to be more compatiable to us. Also expanding our view about the world, thats overall everything is good. Either way we tend to experience a range of emotions and changes in our worldviews

Answer 58

* Can reduce stress because people who rely on religion are less likely to fall back on ineffective coping strategies, such as drinking alcohol * Appealing to a superordinate (high, all-encompassing) principle or power is an effective way to reduce dissonance

Answer 59

* *Control:* Irrational beliefs can give people a false sense of control over uncontrollable events. For example, believing in a lucky charm might make someone feel like they have more control over their chances of winning a lottery. * *Predictability:* Irrational beliefs can make the world seem more predictable and less chaotic. For example, believing in a conspiracy theory might make someone feel like they have a better understanding of why bad things are happening. * *Meaning*: Irrational beliefs can provide a sense of meaning and purpose in the face of suffering. For example, believing that a loved one's death was part of a larger plan might make the loss feel more bearable.

Answer 60

The tendancy to judge the frequency or liklihood of an event by the extent to which it resembles the typical case. Ex: in a coin toss were likely to believe the frequency of coin tosses will be HHTTHHTTHT rather than HHHHHTH because the 1st one "represents" of what random series looks like

Answer 61

The tendancy to judge the frequency or likelihood of an event by the ease with which relevant instances come to mind. Ex: people overestimate the frequency of dramatic deaths such as airplane crashes and underestimate the frequency of less dramatic deaths such as death from tabacco. This is because airplane crashes are more available to us because they get more attention from mass media

Answer 62

The tendancy to judge the frequency or likelihood of an event by the ease with which you can imagine (or mentally stimulate) it. ex: In the Olympic Games bronze medalist tend to be happier than silver medalist. This is because satisfaction depends on thoughts about what might have happened. In this case silver medalist can imagine how close they were to having a gold medal.

Answer 63

The tendancy to judge the frequency or likelihood of an event by using a starting point (anchor) and then adjusting up or down. Ex: two people are arguing: one party starts by sugessting a price, then the other party is likely to base its counter-offer on this anchor

Answer 64

The tendency to notice information that confirms one’s beliefs and to ignore information that disconfirms one’s beliefs * Looking for evidence that your horoscope is true if you believe in astrology, and ignoring evidence that is inconsistent with your horoscope

Answer 65

The tendency to overestimate the link between variables that are related only slightly or not at all * Believing that mentally ill individuals are violent and dangerous

Answer 66

The tendency to ignore or underuse base rate information and instead to be influenced by the distinctive features of the case being judged. * Thinking that it is equally likely to have 60% of births be male in a small or a large hospital

Answer 67

The tendency to believe that a particular chance event is affected by previous events, and that chance events will “even out” in the short run * Believing that one is more likely to get a heads on a coin toss after the sequence TTTTTTTTT than after the sequence THHTTHTHT

Answer 68

The tendency for gamblers who get lucky to think they have a “hot” hand and their luck will continue * Believing that one is more likely to get a tails on a coin toss after the sequence TTTTTTTTT than after the sequence THHTTHTHT

Answer 69

The tendency for people to overestimate the number of other people who share their opinions, attitudes, values, and beliefs * Believing that most people have the same religious beliefs as you do

Answer 70

The tendency for people to underestimate the number of other people who share their most prized characteristics and abilities * If a person exercises regularly, underestimating the number of other people who also exercise regularly

Answer 71

The tendency to stick with a conclusion unless there is overwhelming evidence to change it * Continuing to dislike someone because you heard she was mean to your friend, even though you later find out she was not mean to your friend

Answer 72

The statistical tendency for extreme scores or extreme behavior to return toward the average * The “Sports Illustrated jinx,” in which athletic performance usually declines after appearing on the cover of Sports Illustrated. Or the 3/9 curse in 1st person shooter games.

Answer 73

The belief that one can control totally chance situations * For gamblers, throwing dice softly for low numbers and hard for high numbers

Answer 74

Imagining alternatives to past or present factual events or circumstances * After getting in a car wreck, thinking “what if” I had gone home using a different route

Exam 2 Flashcards

(98 cards)