Exam 2 Flashcards

Question

Which environmental influence has the most influence?

Answer 1

Non-shared environment For most personality variables, the shared environment has almost no impact Most of the environmental influence on a trait comes from the children's unique experiences

Answer 2

= the differential response of individuals with different genotypes to the same environments * Abusive parenting may lead to antisocial personalities in children * But only for children of a certain genotype * Similar links have been found between childhood maltreatment, depression, and particular genes

Answer 3

= the differential exposure of individuals with different genotypes to different environments The genetic influence will cause what you surround yourself, shaping your environment Ex: the shy kid leaning into antisocial setting vs. extroverted leaning into a social setting

Answer 4

-Passive -Reactive -Active

Answer 5

= you receive genes and environment from parents * Ex: your parents also have high verbal ability and are avid readers, so they keep more books in the home * Unintentionally exposed to an environment that facilitates a certain genotype

Answer 6

=your parents react to you in certain ways because of your genetic tendencies * Ex: parents sign you up for more teams because you are more athletic than your brother * Parents tend to be warmer toward more upbeat, optimistic children ○ Creating a calmer, warmer environment * Parents react to curious children by exposing them to different toys, situations, ideas * Genes affect environment because of the way your parents react to your genes.

Answer 7

=you seek out athletic events because you like them * You seek out environments because of your genetic tendencies * Ex: Openness to experience ○ Enjoy art and going to art museums ○ Move to cities with more art museums and meet more friends who enjoy art * Genotype leads to the creation or seeking out of a particular environment

Answer 8

= label you were assigned at birth given biological factors -sex differences

Answer 9

= an average difference between women and men on certain characteristics

Answer 10

Effect sizes

Answer 11

= social interpretations of what it means to be a man or woman

Answer 12

= beliefs about how men and women differ or are supposed to differ, in contrast to what the differences actually are

Answer 13

strength of the difference between two variables ○ Ex: women's agreeableness vs. men's agreeableness ○ Refers to the average man/woman On an individual level: ○ Some women can throw farther than the average man ○ Some men can't throw as far as the average woman

Answer 14

§ 0.2- small difference § 0.5- medium difference § 0.8- large differences **A difference in standard deviation** ○ Negative d= women score higher than men on that trait ○ Positive d= men score higher than women on that trait

Answer 15

= a measure of how spread out the data points are from the mean; a way to assess how far apart the data is

Answer 16

Neuroticism D= -49 Especially women experience high anxiety (d= -0.54) and fearfulness (d= 1.04)

Answer 17

○ People- like thinking about people, planning on career helping others ○ Thing dimension- find work by yourself (ex: programming) ○ d= 1.35 (men are more likely to work with things while women are more likely to work with people)

Answer 18

○ Men are higher in assertiveness ○ One result: they interrupt more § Specifically in mixed-gender groups § May be influenced by perceived social acceptability for men to do this

Answer 19

§ D= -32 overall +more trusting & empathetic § Women score higher than men on measures of agreeableness, but this difference decreases in all-female § Men are slighly more cooperative in same-sex groups, the presence of women in the group changes this dynamic and makes them more likely to interrupt women § Men score higher than women on measures of physical aggression § But women score similarly to men on measures of indirect aggression, such as verbal insults and gossip § And this difference increase in all-male groups

Answer 20

§ D= -.14 overall (Women slightly scoring higher than men) § Could result in a lot of arguments between marriage partners about housecleaning over the course of a year

Answer 21

§ Essentially no sex differences (d= -0.07)

Answer 22

§ Largest gender difference of the big 5 § D= -0.49 § Women especially high in anxiety (d= -0.54) & fearfulness (d= 1.04) -being cut off from the group might be more costly for women

Answer 23

Women (d= -0.60)

Answer 24

§ women feel most of these emotions more often § No difference in pride and guilt § Affection – biggest sex difference, d = -.30

Answer 25

* Women feel most of these emotions more intensely * No difference in pride * Sadness, joy, and fear – biggest sex differences * d = -.28 * d = -.26 * d = -.26

Answer 26

-Trend of women being higher in poor self-esteem than men, possibly due to sexual maturity -As people get older, the difference becomes smaller

Answer 27

No gender difference in childhood But after puberty, twice as common in women as men -largest difference during ages 18-44 Depression affects young people more than older people, but rates may be increasing in older people

Answer 28

○ Men more likely to force sex upon an unwilling partner ○ Although the sexes differ overall, it appears to be limited to a small subset of men who are high on the dark triad traits ○ Possibly due to sexual maturity (focus on physical appearance of girls)

Answer 29

○ Gender differences come from social norms * Men and women are socialized differently through social roles ○ Young boys are encouraged to be masculine * Given masculine toys * Praised for playing rough * Punished for crying ○ Young girls are encouraged to be feminine * Praised for being obedient * Comforted when crying

Answer 30

□ Children learn by watching adult behavior □ Girls watch mom and Boys watch dad ○ And other gender role models Even when gendered behavior isn't specifically encouraged, they learn by watching

Answer 31

□ Men and women expected to have different roles ® Breadwinner vs. homemaker ® Children take on qualities related to these roles ® In the process of taking on these roles, we develop qualities that match these roles society imposes on us ® Women – empathetic and nurturing ® Men – tough and aggressive For both men & women in the supervisor vs supervisee study: ◊ Supervisor acted more dominant Supervisee acted more submissive

Answer 32

Refers to whether hormones cause sex-linked behavior -Testosterone: Men> -Good experimental evidence that links increased testosterone to aggression Problem: don’t explain where sex differences in levels of testosterone came from… - Only tells us what they are correlated with or MAY predict

Answer 33

Men and women are only different in areas of personality where different adaptive problems are faced Similar: Both taste preferences for sugar, fat, salt, and protein; adaptive challenge of attaining calories for survival Different in domains of mating and sexuality: § Reproduction -Women must gestate a fetus for nine months -Men can reproduce through a single act of sex § Securing resources: -Historically, women faced the challenge of collecting enough resources, especially while pregnant

Answer 34

manage the possible opportunities and threats presented by others § Ex: men tended to be more physically aggressive than women throughout history § Understanding this, and categorizing men as aggressive, was useful to predict the behavior of others § Simplify the very complex world

Answer 35

= specific beliefs that we hold about people of a specific sex and age § Provided useful information about life goals § Men stereotyped as oriented towards short-term mating goals § Especially true at younger ages § Women stereotyped as more communal than men § But men stereotyped more communal with age

Answer 36

None are better than the other; different levels of analysis -Evolutionary theories suggest why the sexes differ but do NOT always say HOW they became different -Hormonal and socialization theories specify how the sexes became different but do NOT specify WHY they became different

Answer 37

§ Perceive the world through a lens of masculinity and femininity § Evolutionarily adaptive ○ A synthesis of evolutionary and social role theories ○ May explain why we tend to categorize things as masculine and feminine so easily -ex: “Boy dinner” and “girl dinner”

Answer 38

= the salt ions in sweat conduct electricity § This is a way to measure anxiety, and the sympathetic nervous system plays a role in this. § SNS: regulates fight or flight response (*sympathetic nervous system*) § Higher neuroticism = higher skin conductance - tends to show skin conductance even in the absence of stimuli

Answer 39

= heart racing and blood pressure rising A physiological response (involuntary)

Answer 40

a stable characteristic § Due to differences in underlying biological rhythms § Shorter biological rhythms= morning person Longer biological rhythms= evening person

Answer 41

= biological processes that fluctuate around a 24 or 25 hour cycle ○ Ex) body temperature, endocrine secretion rates compatibility appears to predict relationship success (roomates + intimate relationships) Temporal Isolation Design

Answer 42

§ Dopamine-> novelty seeking § Serotonin-> harm avoidance § Norepinephrine-> reward dependence

Answer 43

= tendency to seek out thrilling and exciting activities, take risks, and avoid boredom § Being high is linked to: ○ Riskier bets in gambling ○ More sexual partners ○ Skydiving

Answer 44

= chemicals that are released from nerve cells that carry messages from one nerve to another ○ 'Chemical messengers' ○ They must be removed from the synapse after the message has passed § Otherwise message will be sent repeatedly

Answer 45

an enzyme that is in charge of regulating the breakdown of neurotransmitters ○ Too much MAO: Neurotransmitters are broken down too quickly >More control over thoughts and behaviors >Low sensation-seeking ○ Too little MAO: Neurotransmitters are broken down too slowly >Less control over thoughts and behaviors >High sensation-seeking

Answer 46

= a structure in the brain stem that regulates the brain’s arousal level by regulating the amount of electrical activity in the brain § It is like a gate that controls nervous system stimulation entering the brain. ○ When gate is mostly closed, brain’s arousal level is lower. § The gate opens and closes at different times for everyone, but it opens wider for some people than for others.

Answer 47

○ Everyone is trying to reach an "optimal level of arousal" ○ Focused; not bored or anxious ○ Controversial during the time; most thought we were trying to reach a low level of arousal § Introverts & Extroverts reach optimal level of arousal differently ○ Introverts: stronger arousal response § ARAS lets in more stimulation § Don't need much arousal from environment ○ Extraverts: weaker arousal response § ARAS lets in less stimulation § Seek out arousal in environment

Answer 48

○ Sensitivity to reward and punishment ○ Based on two systems in the brain: -BIS- behavioral inhibition system -BAS- behavioral activation system

Answer 49

○ Regulates strength of response to punishment, frustration, uncertainty ○ Leads to avoidance behavior (brake system / stop sign) ○ Stronger BIS > BAS associated with anxiety -related to skin conductance

Answer 50

○ Regulates strength of response to incentives & reward ○ Leads to approach behavior (accelerator / green light) ○ Stronger BAS > BIS associated with impulsivity

Answer 51

○ Low on both? Emotional stability ○ High on both? Neurotic ○ Low anxiety, high impulsivity (low BIS and high BAS) – Extraversion ○ High anxiety, low impulsivity (high BIS and low BAS) – Introversion

Answer 52

○ Western ○ Educated ○ Industrialized ○ Rich ○ Democratic

Answer 53

○ Discover principles underlying cultural diversity ○ Examine how psychology and culture influence each other -Cultural variation focuses on the between-group differences

Answer 54

-Evoked culture -Transmitted culture -Cultural universals

Answer 55

= cultural differences that results from differences in physical environment ○ 2 requirements for examining variation in evoked culture: § Universal underlying mechanism § Differences in environment that activate these mechanisms to varying degrees

Answer 56

-Evoked cooperation -Evoked mating strategies -Culture of honor -Cultural differences in conformity

Answer 57

= variance conditions in resources ○ High-variance conditions ® Meat sharing in hunter-gatherer societies ® Beneficial to share (helping each other out); Extra meat would spoil anyways ® Low variance food (i.e., acquired through gathering) is NOT shared ® Egalitarianism ® Disapproval for being stingy ○ Low-variance conditions ® Economic inequality

Answer 58

○ Life history theory ® "Fast" life strategy- early reproduction } Experienced harsh, rejecting, unpredictable childhood environment } Impulsive, earlier puberty and sexual debut, more short-term partners } Food, parental care, and other resources are inconsistent, parental marital discord – cannot rely on a single mate for life ® "Slow" life strategy- delayed reproduction } Responsive, supportive, predictable childhood environment } Committed and stable marriage } parental marital harmony – expect to attract a stable, high-investing mate ○ Cultural differences in these strategies E.g. China and Sweden

Answer 59

○ Insults are offensive challenges ® Must confront and aggress in response ○ Determined by economic means of subsistence ® Herding economy ® Agricultural economy ○ Northerners ® Historically, an agricultural economy ○ Southerners ® Historically, a herding economy ® Not more violent ® Unless for protection or in response to insults

Answer 60

= reputation is important for theft prevention ® Livestock can be stolen overnight. Building a reputation of being aggressive/difficult to mess with is important ® Economy build on lifestock (ex: sheep)

Answer 61

= theft of subsistence is less common ® Crops are harder to steal ® Economy built on agriculture (ex: corn)

Answer 62

○ Disease causing pathogens > pressure to conform ○ Immune system and behavioral immune system ® Social avoidance of the diseased ○ Salient and prevalent pathogen threat ® More introverted ® More conforming to group norms ○ Low pathogen threat ® More tolerant of nonconformity ® Ex: not as pressured to wear a mask -"Tightness" vs "looseness"

Answer 63

® Tightness- more likely to conform ® Looseness- more open ○ Avoiding people with open sores, people who cough, etc. You might also get sick easily if you deviate from group norms such as cooking traditions, so more conforming

Answer 64

= ideas, values, attitudes, and beliefs transmitted through social interaction Seemingly random

Answer 65

-Cultural differences in moral values -Cultural differences in self-concept -Cultural differences in religiosity

Answer 66

○ Some moral values are specific to cultures ® "Finder's keepers" in the US vs "one must return others' lost possessions" in China ® Consumption of beef (Hindu) ® Eating beef is a serious moral violation in Hinduism ® Sexual intercourse during daytime (Semang of Malaysia) ®Semang is an ethnic minority group in Malaysia ○ Transmitted across generations through teaching and observations -Some theories have been proposed to explain moral similarities across cultures

Answer 67

○ The way we define ourselves; guides behaviors in self-presentation ○ Independent vs. interdependent self-view -Independence: how you stand out from a group (Unique abilities, internal motives & dispositions + agency, individualism, western cultures) -Interdependence: affiliation, attachment, engagement with larger group (Relationships and embeddedness + communion, collectivism, non-Western cultures) Cultural differences in information processing + self-enhancement + personality

Answer 68

When people shift their self-concepts and adopt ones similar to those of the adopted culture

Answer 69

= the tendency to explain events with attention to relationships, context, and the links between focal objects and the field as a whole § Interdependent § Predominant among Japanese § Looking at relationships like mittins and gloves (function together; part of larger group)

Answer 70

= the tendency to explain events with the object detached from its context § Independent § Looks at categorical groupings like mittins and scarf (shared categories; clothing items) § These differences even emerge as differences in neural activity Rice Theory of Culture

Answer 71

§ Tendency to describe and present oneself positively

Answer 72

Between-culture variation § Stereotypes of personality based on nationality are inaccurate § Most robust between-culture difference: Extraversion § Americans and Europeans > Asians and Africans § Little variation across cultures Within-culture variation § Socioeconomic status (SES), generation, local § Much variance within cultures

Answer 73

§ A representation in one person's mind that is transmitted to another -pass down from cultural institutions, parents to children, etc. § Religion as a set of specialized adaptations -adaptive benefits of group membership §Religion as a byproduct of adaptations designed for nonreligious functions -not original goal of adaptation Hyperactive agency detection device, Theory of mind adaptations, Attachment system

Answer 74

=unseen forces perceived as human agents § Precautionary adaptation § We mistake a shadow for a burglar but never a burglar for a shadow- one mistake is costlier than the other ◊ This tendency leads us to apply anthropomorphisms to nonhuman entities ◊ Small step from here to infer a higher power with human-life agency who wants us to pray and obey

Answer 75

= infer unseen beliefs, desires, and intentions in other people ◊ Helps us predict the behavior of other people ◊ A small extrapolation: } From "there are people watching me who have a desire for my well-being" to "there is an all-seeing god watching me who has a desire for my well-being" } Predicting behavior to feel more secure that someone else at a higher power has your best interest

Answer 76

= originally evolved in the context of parent-infant relationships ◊ Ex: baby's being useless & vulnerable, solve adaptive problem through crying & other noises ◊ "…we never lose the longing for a caretaker… [and] a god is always there for us"

Answer 77

® Evolutionary theory of origins of moral reasoning ® Rational moral judgements (good/bad, right/wrong) are based on foundations ® Foundations evolved to solve challenges of group life faced by ancestors ® Foundations are universal but expression varies ® Upbringing, culture ® Foundations are intuitive ® Moral judgements happen quickly ® A feeling of good/bad, right/wrong, or like/dislike that appears suddenly without any conscious awareness of weighing evidence or thinking actively ® Complex moral judgments serve to justify the initial wave of intuition

Answer 78

-Care -Fairness -Loyalty -Authority -Purity

Answer 79

= concerned with preventing harm to others, especially vulnerable humans and animals } Ex: Would you rather… – Stick a pin in your palm – Stick a pin into the palm of a child you don't know

Answer 80

= revolves around ideas of justice, rights, and equality } Ex: Would you rather… – Accept an expensive TV that a friend of yours wants to give you, knowing your friend got the TV a year ago when the company made it sent by mistake & at no charge, to your friend – Accept an expensive TV your friend wants to give you, knowing they bought the TV a year ago from a thief who had stolen it from a wealthy family

Answer 81

= emphasizes loyalty to one's group, family, or nation; values include patriotism, allegiance, and self-sacrifice for the group } Ex: Would you rather … – Say something slightly bad about your nation (which you don't believe to be true) while calling in, anonymously, to a talk-radio show in your nation – Say something slightly bad about your nation (which you don't believe to be true) while calling in, anonymously, to a talk-radio show in a foreign nation

Answer 82

= focuses on respect for tradition and legitimate authority; values include social order, hierarchy, and duty } Ex: Would you rather…(with their permission) – Slap a friend in the face as part of a comedy skit – Slap your father in the face as part of a comedy skit

Answer 83

= focuses on the idea of purity or sanctity, often in the context of religious beliefs; values the sacredness of certain ideas, objects, or practices, especially the body and religion } Ex: Would you rather… – Attend a performance art piece in which the actors act like fools for 30 minutes, including failing to solve simple problems and falling repeatedly on stage – Attend a performance art piece in which the actors act like animals for 30 minutes, including crawling around naked and urinating on stage

Exam 2 Flashcards

(107 cards)