Exam 2 Flashcards
(97 cards)
1
Q
three types of work fueled by
phosphate transfer
A
mechanical
transport
chemical
2
Q
purpose of cellular respiration
A
process by which we extract energy from glucose
3
Q
equation for cellular respiration
A
C6H12O6 + 6O2 ⇒ 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
4
Q
Glycolysis basics
A
cellular respiration
cytoplasm (cytosol)
sugar to pyruvic acid
5
Q
Glycolysis process
A
- investment phase: uses 2 ATP to break carbon backbone (now two 3C compounds)
- payoff phase: uses ATP and NADH to convert to pyruvic acid
6
Q
Glycolysis output
A
2 pyruvic acids
2 NADHs
net 2 ATPs
7
Q
steps to cellular respiration
A
glycolysis
intermediate phase
Krebs cycle
electron transfer chain
8
Q
intermediate stage of cellular respiration basics
A
pyruvic acid becomes acetyl CoA as it moves through mitochondrion to inner compartment in prep for Krebs cycle
9
Q
intermediate stage of cellular respiration process
A
each acid gives off one C for CO2, resulting in two CoA molecules
10
Q
intermediate stage of cellular respiration output
A
2 CoA
2 NADHs
11
Q
Krebs cycle basics
A
cellular respiration
inner mitochondrion
completes the breakdown of glucose into CO2
12
Q
Krebs cycle process
A
(times 2)
starts with CoA (2C) molecule
added to 4C from cycle to equal 6C
2 are sloughed off to form CO2
ATP generated
remaining 4 used to start next cycle (0 original left)
NADH and FADH2 obtained through reduction
13
Q
Krebs cycle output
A
net for each cycle: 3 NADHs, 1 ATP, 1 FADH2
14
Q
electron transport chain basics (CR)
A
inner compartment mitochondria “matrix”
converts 10 NADHs and 2 FADH2 into bulk of ATPs needed
15
Q
electron transport chain process (CR)
A
- electrons transported out of NADH to become NAD+
- electrons go through series of pumps, progressively reducing in energy level
- output from each pump through the inner mitochondrial membrane is H+ (proton)
- O2 pulls electrons down the chain and is the terminal electron acceptor (end of the transfer chain byproduct is H20)
- ATP synthase is where bulk of ATP is produced by spinning to convert pump output (H+) into energy
16
Q
purpose of photosynthesis
A
using sunlight to synthesize energy (making glucose)
17
Q
equation for photosynthesis
A
6CO2 + 6H2O ⇒ (light energy) ⇒ C6H12O6 + 6O2
18
Q
light reactions basics
A
photosynthesis
thylakoid
converts H2O to O2
19
Q
light reactions basics
A
photosynthesis
thylakoid
converts H2O to O2
20
Q
light reactions process
A
photosystem 2 (uses stripped H from H20)
electron transfer chain
photosystem 1
21
Q
light reactions output
A
nets ATP and NADPH for use in Calvin cycle
22
Q
Calvin cycle process
A
- starts with 1 block 3CO2 molecules from air, plus ATP and NADPH from light reactions
- added to 3 blocks of 5C (recycled)
- ATP and NADPH converted
- 1 block 3C leaves to create G3P, precursor of glucose (3 blocks of 5C left to recycle)
- complete cycle twice to make 1 glucose
23
Q
Calvin cycle process
A
- starts with 1 block 3CO2 molecules from air, plus ATP and NADPH from light reactions
- added to 3 blocks of 5C (recycled)
- ATP and NADPH converted
- 1 block 3C leaves to create G3P, precursor of glucose (3 blocks of 5C left to recycle)
- complete cycle twice to make 1 glucose
24
Q
what holds DNA base pairs together?
A
hydrogen (A – T = 2; C – G = 3)
25
what is enzyme that opens helix for replication?
helicase
26
what is DNA's main purpose?
encode proteins
27
DNA replication process
* double helix is opened/broken apart
* DNA polymerases read DNA and adds complementary nucleotides to both
* each of resulting two double helices contains one original (parent) strand and one new (daughter) strand
28
Hershey – Chase experiment
* proves that DNA, not protein, is passed on to children
* chose to work with phosphorous and sulfur
* phosphate in DNA, not protein
* sulfur in protein, not DNA
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genotype
an organism’s genetic makeup
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phenotype
an organism's physical traits
31
start codon
AUG
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steps to converting DNA to proteins
transcription
RNA splicing (intermediate)
translation
33
transcription basics
converts DNA to RNA in nucleus
34
transcription process
DNA opened with helicase
| RNA polymerase reads DNA and lays down complementary RNA base
35
RNA splicing basics
RNA to mRNA (intermediate step in nucleus)
36
RNA splicing process
exons spliced together to form mRNA, introns released
37
exon
expressed sections of DNA bases, spliced together coding sequences that form mRNA
38
intron
sections of DNA that aren’t expressed but instead edited or released
39
translation process
* ribosome travels down the mRNA chain until it reaches the start codon, then lays down the first amino acid
* after Met, ribosome will read next codon (triplet base) and lay down corresponding amino acid
* process continues until stop codon is reached
* tRNA translates between languages of mRNA to proteins
* if a mutation occurs before the start codon, there is no change
40
translation process
ribosome travels down the mRNA chain until it reaches the start codon, then lays down the first amino acid
41
first amino acid in every protein, signaled by the start codon
Methionine
42
mRNA
messenger RNA, uses start codon
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tRNA
transfer RNA (the translator), uses anticodon UAC, carries appropriate amino acid to location requested by mRNA
44
chromatin
loose DNA wrapped around protein
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mitochondrion
site of cellular respiration
46
mitochondrion
site of cellular respiration
47
mitosis
somatic cell division
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goal of mitosis
make two identical cells
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steps to mitosis
prophase
metaphase
anaphase
telophase
50
prophase process
* chromosomes condense
* centrioles send off proteins to attach to chromosomes
* nuclear envelope disintegrates in order to pull apart
51
metaphase process
chromosomes line up in center along metaphase plate
52
anaphase process
sister chromatids separate, become own daughter chromosome, and move toward opposite sides of the cell
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telophase process
* groups of chromosomes have reached opposite edge of cell
* two nuclear envelopes formed
* cells cleave apart
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cytokinesis
two new identical cells cleaving apart
55
of chromosomes in sex cells
23
56
of chromosomes in somatic cells
46 (one from each parent)
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goal of meiosis
produce four genetically different sex cells
58
plant gametes
seeds and pollen
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human gametes
sperm and egg
60
autosome
non-sex chromosome (any other than X or Y)
61
homologous
the two chromosomes that make a matched pair (non-sex), possessing the same genes for the same characteristics at the same loci (one from each parent)
62
steps to meiosis
Meiosis I
| Meiosis II
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steps to Meiosis I
prophase I
metaphase I
anaphase I
telophase I
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recombination
aka "crossing over"
| sister chromatids pair up to become homologous chromosomes, and swap DNA so they are no longer identical in prophase I
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random alignment
chromosomes line up on random sides (right or left) in metaphase I
66
Mendel’s law of independent assortment
the inheritance of one character has no effect on the inheritance of another
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karyotype
visual display of 23 pairs of human chromosomes
68
haploid
one set of chromosomes in gamete (n, total 23)
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diploid
two sets of chromosomes in autosome (2n, total 46)
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sister chromatids
identical copies of DNA after replication, half of chromosome lengthwise
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homologous chromosomes
• the two sister chromatids that make a matched pair (non-sex)
• they possess the same genes for the same characteristics at the same loci (one from each parent)
o basically same DNA, genes except variant or mutation
o one from each parent at each karyotype number
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centromere
where sister chromatids join to form a homologous chromosome
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goal of meiosis
produce (genetically different) sex cells
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how many cells meiosis produces and why
After two successive cell divisions of meiosis, a single diploid cell will produce four different haploid cells
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plant gametes
seeds and pollen
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human gametes
sperm and egg
77
meiosis I basics
homologous pairs separate; one diploid cell becomes two genetically different haploid cells
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prophase I process
* homologous chromosomes pair up (now a tetrad or bivalent, a group of four chromatids, or two pairs) and swap DNA so they are no longer identical
* chromosome groups start to move toward center
* nuclear envelope disintegrate
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metaphase I process
* bivalent homologous chromosome groups line up on the metaphase plate on opposite sides of cell, randomly lining up to the left or right of each other
* one pair of sister chromatids connected to each pole
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anaphase I process
pairs of homologous chromosomes split up (chromatids remain attached) and migrate to poles
81
telophase I process
* nuclear membrane forms and cells cleave apart
| * results in two genetically different daughter cells, 23 chromosomes in each (haploid)
82
meiosis II basics
sister chromatids separate; two haploids become four
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meiosis II process
same as mitosis, except meiosis II starts with two genetically different haploid cells and produces two more, whereas mitosis starts with one diploid cell and produces one identical diploid cell
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reasons meiosis results in genetically different cells
recombination, random alignment, additional copies
85
genetics
study of heredity
86
black box of genetics
represents what we didn’t know about inherited traits
87
allele
alternate version of a gene occurring at a given locus, one from each parent on each chromosome
88
homozygous
same allele occurring at a given locus
89
heterozygous
different allele occurring at a given locus
90
locus
a specific location of a gene along the chromosome
91
Mendel's contributions
* genes are material elements (chromosomes)
* genes come in pairs (homologous chromosomes)
* elements can retain character through generations (at times expressed or not)
* gene pairs separate when forming gametes (meiosis)
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why peas are an ideal test subject for genetics
* short time between generations
* simple, with two characteristics (either/or)
* easy to care for
93
characteristics of monohybrid cross
* start with true bred parent (P) for specific trait, bred for several generations to weed out alternates
* two P plants produce hybrid plants
* F1 generation receives 50% chance of each trait, but dominant wins out, so all in F1 generation display dominant trait
* F2 generation is 3:1 (¾ dominant, ¼ recessive)
94
RR
homozygous dominant
95
rr
homozygous recessive
96
Rr
heterozygous
97
characteristics of dihybrid cross
start with true breed P, but breeding for two traits instead of one
9:3:3:1 probability (9/16, 3/16, 3/16, 1/16)
