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Bio 101 > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Mendelian genetics

A

study of variation through patterns and prediction of inheritance

the probability of what things will look like

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2
Q

Mendel’s contributions

A

a. genes are material elements (chromosomes)
b. genes come in pairs (homologous chromosomes)
c. elements can retain character through generations (at times expressed or not)
d. gene pairs separate when forming gametes (meiosis)

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3
Q

monohybrid characteristics

A

a. 3:1

b. F1 heterozygous (word by itself implies dominant)

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4
Q

dihybrid characteristics

A

a. 9:3:3:1
b. two traits = four gametes
c. each allele will have one of each trait
d. label each box of Punnett square for both traits

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5
Q

shortcut (or check) to dihybrid Punnett square

A

make monohybrid square for each trait and multiply answers together

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6
Q

incomplete dominance

A

when traits of F1 hybrids falls between the phenotypes of the two parents (when red and white flowers produce pink)

with dominance lacking, an intermediary trait manifests

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7
Q

codominance

A

neither of the heterozygous alleles is dominant over the other and both affect the phenotype

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8
Q

antigen

A

protein on outside of cell (A and/or B)

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9
Q

example of an X-linked disease

A

red-green colorblindness

higher percentage are male, because females have two X chromosomes and thus a greater chance at getting a normal allele)

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10
Q

example of autosomal recessive disorder

A

albinism

requires two recessive genes to manifest

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11
Q

nondisjunction

A

when members of a chromosome pair fail to separate during anaphase I, resulting in some cells with either one or three chromosomes)

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12
Q

nondisjunction in meiosis I

A

pairs of homologous chromosomes fail to separate

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13
Q

nondisjunction in meiosis II

A

sister chromatids fail to separate

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14
Q

aneuploidy

A

abnormal number of chromosomes

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15
Q

trisomy 21

A

Down syndrome

three number 21 chromosomes

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16
Q

Klinefelter syndrome

A

male with an extra X (XXY)

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17
Q

Turner’s syndrome

A

female with only one X (XO)

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18
Q

chromosome deletion

A

portions missing from chromosome

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19
Q

chromosome inversion

A

portions cut out and reinserted upside down

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20
Q

translocation

A

all or part of a chromosome fused to a different chromosome

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21
Q

chromosome duplication

A

portion of chromosome duplicated

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22
Q

pleiotropy

A

one gene influences several hereditary characters

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23
Q

polygenic inheritance

A

variations in characteristics that occur along a continuum, like skin or eye color, or height, which are controlled by several genes

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24
Q

pedigrees

A

tool for mapping family relationships

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25
Q

biotechnology

A

the manipulation of organisms or their components to make useful products

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26
Q

transgenic organisms

A

organisms artificially altered with genes from other species

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27
Q

where HGH (human growth hormone) reproduces

A

genetically modified bacteria

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28
Q

GMO (genetically modified organisms)

A

taking genes from another organism and putting them into another organism to take advantage of a particular trait

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29
Q

plasmid

A

a small ring of self-replicating DNA separate from the chromosome(s), found in prokaryotes and yeasts

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30
Q

restriction enzymes

A

the “cutting enzyme,” naturally occurring enzymes in bacteria that can cut DNA fragments at specific sequences

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31
Q

DNA ligase

A

the “pasting enzyme,” one that attaches or rejoins DNA fragments with complementary ends

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32
Q

recombinant DNA

A

DNA combined from two different sources

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33
Q

recombinant DNA process

A

• gather plasmids from bacteria and genes of interest from DNA
• restriction enzymes recognize and bind to specific sequences
o breaks apart sugar-phosphate backbone, opening up the DNA helix
o two plasmids start at opposite ends of strands (5 – 3 direction) in search of recognition sequences
o enzyme cuts out DNA at recognition sequences
o leaves overhangs, or sticky ends
• DNA ligase pastes everything together
• now can reproduce the recombinant DNA

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34
Q

polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

A

multiple copies of DNA from a small sample

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35
Q

materials needed for PCR

A
  1. original DNA
  2. DNA nucleotides
  3. DNA polymerase
  4. 2 primers (around gene you want)
36
Q

PCR process

A
  • process is a series of being heated (to separate strands) and cooled (to reform the double helix)
  • heat breaks the hydrogen bonds, separating them into two single strands
  • as it cools, added primers attach to complementary starting points
  • nucleotides added
  • 2 polymerases travel down strands in 5 – 3 direction
  • result is two identical copies of section wanted
37
Q

steps to artificially producing a white sheep from a black sheep

A

• retrieve donor egg from black sheep
• remove the haploid nucleus
• retrieve a diploid skin cell from white sheep
• fuse the cell and enucleated egg using electricity
o simulates fertilization
o results in an egg with a diploid nucleus
• implant the embryo in a surrogate
• a clone of the white sheep is born
o contains DNA from both (most from the cell, though some from the mitochondria in the egg)

38
Q

evolution

A

change in populations of organisms

39
Q

natural selection

A

a method whereby nature (the environment) selects for the traits that allow organisms to best survive and reproduce in the current environment

40
Q

Darwin’s observations at Galapagos Islands

A

a. rich diversity of life, unique flora and fauna

b. striking ways in which organisms are suited to their environments

41
Q

Darwin’s finches

A
  1. specimens collected looked vastly different but were same species, all finches
  2. he notices the birds all have traits allowing them to flourish in their specific habitat
  3. these finches have relatives on the mainland, so these must have adapted or diversified
  4. concludes that nature selected for the animals with traits most suited for their environment
42
Q

Darwin’s influences

A

Charles Lyell
author of Principles of Geology
geological features we see today could have been formed by processes still occurring today
Darwin realized that the earth is changing

Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck
organisms can acquire traits in their lifetime and give those traits to their offspring (disproven)
living things can change over time
Darwin becomes interest in this possibility of change, in how organisms interact with their environment

Georges Cuvier
studied the fossil record
each layer had unique animals, therefore God must have had many creations after extinctions
Darwin interested in the idea of extinction, and in the fossil record’s calling into question the idea that God created everything just as it is

43
Q

key points of The Origin of Species

A

“descent with modification”
Darwin argued that each living species descended from a succession of ancestral species, and that small changes could add up over long periods to produce the diversity of species we see in the world today

natural selection is the mechanism
organisms that are more likely to survive and reproduce pass their genetic material on to future generations possess traits useful for surviving in current environment

44
Q

misconceptions about evolution

A

evolution does not say humans came from monkeys
though we have a common ancestor

evolution is not a goal, with everything on its way to becoming human
humans are not “best”
everything has been evolving for millions of years

45
Q

allele

A

alternate forms of a gene occurring at a locus, one from each parent on each chromosome

46
Q

species

A
  • group of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated
  • not hybrids made in captivity with human intervention
  • willing and able to reproduce naturally
  • organisms able to breed naturally and produce offspring that can survive and reproduce
47
Q

reproductive isolation

A

groups no longer able or willing to reproduce

48
Q

speciation

A

an evolutionary process in which one species splits into two or more species

the formation of a new species

49
Q

homologies

A

common characteristics inherited from a recent common ancestor (grasping hands)

50
Q

analogy

A

common characteristics that evolved independently (fins in ocean dwellers)

51
Q

evolution

A

change in populations of organisms

52
Q

underlying principle of evolution

A

all life on Earth has a common ancestor

53
Q

microevolution

A

change in allele frequencies between generations (short-term)

54
Q

five agents of microevolution

A 
mutation
gene flow
genetic drift
nonrandom mating
natural selection
55
Q

gene flow

A

transfer of alleles due to introduction of new breeding population

reduces differences between populations

56
Q

genetic drift

A

random change in allele frequency visible in small groups due to reduced breeding populations and/or chance

57
Q

founder effect

A

genetic drift

small number of breeders act as founding population (introduction of new environment vs. extinction)

58
Q

bottleneck effect

A

genetic drift

drastic reduction in population size after cataclysmic event or circumstances (like mass extinction), producing offspring not genetically representative of original population (ex: cheetahs)

59
Q

natural selection

A

a method whereby nature (the environment) selects for the traits that allow organisms to best survive and reproduce in the current environment

only method that promotes adaption

60
Q

stabilizing selection

A

intermediate phenotypes favored (ex: birth weights), reducing variation and promoting adaptation

61
Q

directional selection

A

one extreme of phenotypes favored over the other (ex: giraffe’s long neck) that shift the overall makeup of a population toward that one direction

62
Q

disruptive selection

A

both extremes favored (ex: differences in male/female coloration, etc.)

63
Q

nonrandom mating

A

sexual selection, whereby individuals with certain traits are more likely than others to find mates

64
Q

macroevolution

A

long-term evolution and speciation

65
Q

how enough change occurs to cause speciation

A 
allopatric speciation (geographic isolation)
behavioral isolation
temporal isolation
ecological isolation
sympatric speciation
66
Q

allopatric speciation

A

species develop because of a geographic barrier or physical barrier (desert, ocean, highway, etc.)

ex: emus and ostriches, or Grand Canyon squirrels

67
Q

ecological isolation

A

populations live in different habitats in the same range or area

ex: crayfish

68
Q

temporal isolation

A

populations not reproductive or active at the same time

ex: hawks (diurnal) and owls (nocturnal)

69
Q

behavioral isolation

A

different behaviors don’t attract mates

ex: different mating calls

70
Q

three general outcomes of natural selection

A

directional selection
stabilizing selection
disruptive selection

71
Q

smallest biological unit that can evolve

A

population

72
Q

half-life

A

time it takes half the radioactive amount to decay

each half-life cuts amount of radioactive material in half

73
Q

evidence for evolution

A 
radiometric dating
fossil record
morphological evidence
embryological evidence
experimental evidence
DNA evidence
74
Q

half-life of Carbon

A

5730 years

75
Q

punctuated equilibrium

A

long evolutionarily static periods punctuated by shorter periods of rapid evolution

76
Q

sympatric speciation

A

organisms live in the same geographic area but are still reproductively isolated

ex: polyploidy in plants, where plants possess multiple sets of chromosomes and are unable to reproduce with other populations, but instead self-fertilize

77
Q

mechanical isolation

A

when organisms are physically incompatible (“lock and key” model)

78
Q

gamete isolation

A

sperm and egg incompatible

79
Q

hybrid infertility

A

offspring infertile

80
Q

stages of whale evolution

A
  1. Pakicetus (53 mya)
  2. Ambulocetus (50 mya)
  3. Rodhocetus (47 mya)
  4. Basilosaurus (38 mya)
  5. Dorudon (33 mya)
  6. Squalodon (14 mya)
81
Q

characteristics of Pakicetus

A

terrestrial rat dog

82
Q

characteristics of Ambulocetus

A

also terrestrial, but now swims in shallow water

83
Q

characteristics of Rodhocetus

A

a. entirely aquatic
b. back feet shrink until they can’t support weight
c. nostril begins migration to top of head
d. eyes on side of head

84
Q

characteristics of Basilosaurus

A

a. vestigial back legs

b. much longer and sleeker body

85
Q

characteristics of Dorudon

A

a. even more streamlined

b. tail flukes start to develop

86
Q

characteristics of Squalodon

A

development of echolocation in dolphin branch and baleen in some whales

Bio 101 (3 decks)

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