Exam 2 Flashcards
(179 cards)
1
Q
A husky having more coats than a lab would be an example of
A
Variation- INDIVIDUALS WITHIN A SPECIES differ in terms of anatomical physiological and behavioral traits, certain traits are more preferable in certain environments
2
Q
How do the finches help Darwin’s argument of natural selection
A
competition for food causes variation in beak size between ground finches (seeds) and tree finches (fruit and insects). those that can’t eat enough don’t survive and don’t pass down disadvantageous traits
3
Q
How did peacocks hurt the argument of natural selection? What addition to the argument did they make way for?
A
feathers are in no way advantageous for survival. detrimental most likely- bulky and attention drawing. Made way to argue that the likelihood of passing genes on also depends on traits that make you a more desirable mate- Sexual selection
4
Q
list of taxonomic (phylogeny) classifications
A
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
5
Q
Kingdom
A
All living beings divided into five kingdoms (e.g. animalia, plantae, etc.)
6
Q
Phylum
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main subdivision of a kingdom, e.g. vertebrates, invertebrates etc.
7
Q
Class
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subdivision after phyla- Mammals, birds, reptiles
8
Q
Order
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subdivision after class- carnivore, primates
9
Q
Family
A
felines, canines, etc
10
Q
Genus
A
Dogs, wolves, coyotes, etc
11
Q
Species
A
domestic dogs
12
Q
Homology
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Similarities in features due to common evolutionary heritage- same structure may have different function
13
Q
Are brains typically homologous?
A
Yes
14
Q
All vertebrate brains share what basic features?
A
Develop from dorsal neural tube Bilateral symmetry Segmentation (Hind-mid-forebrain) Hierarchical control (fore>mid>hind) Localization of function (area based functions) Separate PNS and CNS
15
Q
Why are invertebrates good for studying
A
less complicated systems. nematodes are translucent
16
Q
independent evolution of functionally similar characteristics (convergent evolution) bats and butterflies have wings but not same bone structure
A
analogy
17
Q
The use or disuse of some structure or behavior causes an increase or decrease in that behavior T or F and name of this theory
A
Lamarckian evolution. False. this sort of leads to epigenesis
18
Q
evolution research is restricted to the study of natural history. cannot be studied using contemporary experimental methods T or F
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False. William Dallinger and the temperature change experiment proved otherwise
19
Q
evolution of a mutation can occur without the mutation having an adaptive value t or f
A
T
20
Q
Change in the frequency of a trait in a population due to random sampling
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Genetic drift
21
Q
Founder effect
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change in the frequency of a gene variant in a population due to random sampling
22
Q
Vestigiality- giraffe nerve example from class was not an intelligent design but once served a purpose
A
traits that were adaptive to an ancestral organism which no longer serve any function (ostrich wings) “non adaptive traits” People having blind spots is not adaptive, octopus has no blind spot
23
Q
do reptiles have an optic tectum? location of optic tectum?
A
no- superior colliculus in midbrain
24
Q
maladaptive traits
A
do not work in favor of a species survival, but were selected for typically for reproductive success (big ass elk antlers) or by chance. pigeons peck at shit they associate with food. not just food
25
there is now huge variation in humans due to modern medicine, why?
people that normally wouldn't survive or reproduce in nature have easier lives. this allows them comfort and longevity, more chances to reproduce
26
difference between human and chimpanzee brain?
chimpanzee brainstem exits toward the back instead of down. chimps do everything humans do, just a little bit worse
27
thought to be a major contributor to increased cerebral volume throughout evolution (seen in humans and apes)
bipedalism. having more access to hands rather than standing on all fours means increased time to use the hands and learn things with the hands
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another physiological component to increased brain size in humans (mutation)
mutation caused overall weaker musculature. weaker jaw muscles means less space and architecture required for mandible, giving brain room to expand
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ecological niche
brain develops to efficiently aid organism in survival in its natural habitat. more brain space is dedicated to anatomy/physiology that plays big roles in survival. brains evolve for efficiency, not power. thats why manatees don't have smart ass fuckin brains- dont need them.
30
do socialization and mean clique size correlate with an increase or decrease in the evolution of brain size?
increase
31
food storage is related to what brain structure? why?
birds that store their food have a bigger hippocampus than non-food-storers. the hippocampus forms mental maps and allows animals to keep track of areas where they have hidden food
32
bigger brains always means better chance of survival true or false
false. brain needs to be efficient. too big of a brain that isn't necessary may cause unneeded intercranial pressure and kill the organism
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encephalization
brain size relative to body size is most important. Brain weight/body weight^.69
34
second largest encephalization factor in primates? example?
capuchin monkeys exhibit social learning and culture through tool use. Banging rocks on nuts is a learned skill. the monkey will not do it if it is raised in captivity
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what has the largest encephalization factor of any invertibrate?
octopus
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what factor besides encephalization is important? what separates the reletively equal encephalization factors of the capuchin monkey and the capybara?
neuron count. monkeys have way more
37
the ratio of what area of the brain compared to other areas is also a predictor of intelligence?
cortical areas
38
how can intelligence be maladaptive?
more oxygen required for brain- uses 15-20% of O2, glucose, etc.
long gestational and postnatal developmental periods
more genes needed for brain construction, increasing chances of mutations leading to cognitive and behavioral disorders
weapons of mass destruction
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Morphology
Physical shape of things, development of different structures
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What influences what? (Behavior, Physiology, Morphology)
Behavior is influenced by morphology and physiology, and can also influence both in return
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SIX STAGES OF NEURONAL DEVELOPMENT
Neurogenesis, cell migration, cell differentiation, synaptogenesis, cell death (major part of brain development), synapse rearrangement
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Much of neuroplasticity in adults is due to what?
synapse rearrangement
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How do neural stem cells migrate
traveling up radial glia
44
Growth cones and their function
Synaptogenesis. extend from axons and dendrites, attracted to target cells via chemical signals called chemoattractants- can be repelled from other cell groups or locations by other signals called chemorepellents
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T or F there is a code within every neuron that determines its future function
False. It is shaped by cells/chemicals around it
46
Important factor in synaptic connectivity (think behavior)
the human experience! different experiences and uses of neurons increase or inhibit their function and others like them
47
What prenatal structure is the basis of all brain development?
Neural tube
48
The ventricular system arises from what structure?
central canal of the neural tube
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when does the neural tube present itself?
3 weeks
50
what part of the neural tube grows way more than every other part?
forebrain
51
Where is the optic tectum located?
midbrain
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T or F- ALL vertebrates have optic tectum
T
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control embryonic development of structures like limbs and eyes. regulate expression of networks of other genes by switching them on or off in various parts of the body. its target genes promote cell division, differentiation, cell migration, etc
hox genes
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when ultrabithorax gene mutated, what happens?
growth of a second thorax/wings
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When antennapedia gene (control of network of genes leading to development of legs) is switched on in the head segment, what happens?
fly grows legs where antenna should be
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Olfactory pathway DRAW
Air-{(OLFACTORY EPITHELIUM) olfactory cilia-olfactory receptors-olfactory bulb}-Amygdala, hypothalamus,and prepyriform cortex (primary olfactory cortex)-amygdala and prepyriform cortex also communicate with hypothalamus, and the medial dorsal thalamus-orbital frontal cortices
57
Olfactory transduction, what system? process?
Secondary messenger. odorant binding to receptor activates g protein with GTP which activates adenyl cyclase releasing cAMP to open ion channes for depolarization
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how many functional receptor TYPES do people have? how many receptors altogether? dogs and mice? what causes this difference
350 compared to +1000, 6 million compared to 220 million in dogs. people are less reliant on the sense of smell for survival and communication. DOLPHINS HAVE 0
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T or F olfactory neurons cannot regenerate
F. new set every few weeks
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Vomeronasal Organ
Animals detect pheromones that cause different behavior through accessory olfactory bulb in cortex. VNO is located superior to hard palate
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T or F the Vomeronasal organ connects directly to the thalamus
F. no thalamic connection
62
Gustatory pathway
Taste buds on papillae-cranial nerves VII, IX, X-Solitary tract in brainstem-thalamus-gustatory cortex
63
T or F different papillae have specific taste buds according to their location
F. each papilla has buds for each taste, but have diversity of number of buds
64
Receptors for umami (two identified) respond to what?
MSG- monosodium glutamate. meaning glutamate is probably sufficient
65
What group is more sensitive to taste and smell, men or women?
women. more taste buds means more taste
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when sweet taste receptor hT1R2-hT1R3 is altered to be responsive to acidic pH, what occurs?
The individual can perceive sour tastes as sweet. sour tasting things are acidic
67
What would happen if you had an nonfunctional T1R2 mutation?
cannot taste sweet things
68
What taste can whales (cetaceans) experience
salt
69
function of taste receptors outside of mouth?
signals for toxins that induce sneezing, coughing, vomiting, diarrhea, etc
70
Fourier analysis
summation of a bunch of general functions to analyze a complicated one
71
Auditory pathway
tympanic membrane-ossicles-cochlea (basilar membrane)-cochlear nucleus-superior olivary nucleus in brainstem (info from right ear crosses to left side, vice versa)-inferior colliculus-medial geniculate nucleus-auditory cortex
72
T or F- neurons in the medial geniculate nucleus can be inhibited by certain frequencies
T. this is where and how further sharpening of sound begins, along with neurons along the entire auditory pathway being frequency sensitive- only being stimulated by certain frequencies
73
Where is the first instance of binaural processing?
Superior olivary nucleus
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organ of corti
principle components that convert sound into neural activity- scala vestibuli's waves of fluid cause basilar membrane to ripple, bending hair cells and opening channels previously closed by tip links
75
High frequencies displace the basilar membrane at what part of the cochlea?
Base. (outer ring)
76
Low frequencies displace the basilar membrane at what part of the cochlea?
Apex (center point)
77
what hair cells are in charge of hearing? inner or outer?
Inner. they possess 95% of the afferent neurons in the basilar membrane. 16-20 per cell
78
Purpose of outer hair cells?
fine tuning cochlea for accurate discrimination between frequencies. lengthens and stiffens membrane to sharpen tones
79
where do afferent neurons connected to hair cells go to?
cochlear nucleus in brain stem
80
where do efferent neurons connected to inner hair cells come from?
lateral superior olivary nucleus
81
where do efferent neurons connected to outer hair cells come from?
medial superior olivary nucleus
82
how do cochlear implants work?
line a tube through the scala tympani and send wave functions to specific high or low frequency areas. just like basilar membrane
83
T or F it is better to receive an auditory brainstem implant at a young age rather than old
T. due to brain plasticity
84
is the sound shadow effect greater at higher or lower freq? why?
higher. low freq have larger waves that are more effective at quickly reaching the ear further from the auditory stimulus
85
two key components in spatial discrimination of auditory stimuli (think binaural processing)
interaural intensity difference (one ear pointed more directly at sound source) and Latency/time difference. differences in the onset of cochlear vibration
86
What structure detects interaural time differences?
Medial superior olive. sound location is encoded by the relative activity of the entire left MSO compared to the entire right MSO. bigger the difference, further away the sound
87
What structure detects interaural intensity differences
Lateral Superior Olive
88
selectivity of pinna's ridges and valleys to reinforce certain frequencies, sending information about vertical position of sound to inferior colliculus (in which it ends up converging with binaural cues to completely localize sound)
spectral filtration
89
Pitch discrimination- place theory
encoding of a sound frequency as a function of the location on the basilar membrane that is most stimulated by that sound
90
pitch discrimination- volley theory
neurons fire in synchrony with tone frequencies- a 100 Hz tone elicits a neuronal response of 100 action potentials per second
91
pitch discrimination- phase locking
for very high frequencies in which one neuron cannot fire enough to match- multiple neurons fire to a represent the tone frequency. a summation of all of the neurons firing
92
why do humans have such a wide hearing range
survival. we have a lot of things we need to be afraid of so we need to be able to hear a lot of things and communicate
93
Where is the primary auditory cortex (A1) located
upper surface of temporal lobes. speech perception moves forward through left temporal lobe (Phonemes, words, phrases)
94
targeted expression of Pax-6 gene in thoracic segment of fruit fly produces what what
ectopic fruit fly eye. Pax-6 gene in mice- which causes eye growth- is homologous to the Eyeless gene in fruit flies
95
temperature-dependent sex determination in reptiles is a result of what?
a combination of the fact that there is no gene that codes for sex in reptiles, and the effect of the environment on the expression of the reptilian genome
96
T or F instincts are inherent in the genome, they require no experience prior to expression
F duck call example, righting reflex in antigravity example. you are born with the reflexes, but you have to learn them
97
what did we learn from the selective breeding mean mice example
you can be born mean but if you are raised in an environment that contradicts that phenotype, you wont learn to be mean. you will learn to be good, because everyone else is being good, and keeps you in line
98
Thalidomide
teratogen prescribed in the 50s to treat morning sickness. interferes with genes controlling limb and organ development
99
why might a dog that you cloned from your original dog look different?
Epigenetics. You used the same genes, but did not provide the same exact environment. different experience influences differences in the expressions of the genome
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epigenetics
changes in gene expression that do not depend on underlying sequence, and do not change DNA itself- drugs, development, environmental chemicals, diet, aging
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methylation
expression of genes can be modified by chemical marks on the DNA and on histones that DNA wraps around. Methylation attaches directly to DNA , but methyl groups and more can attach to histones and either loosen or tighten wrapping of DNA during histone modification
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best example of epigenesis
the face. skin, eyes, teeth, and hair all look different. but they contain exactly the same genetic information
103
what does all the work, the genome or the epigenome?
genome. epigenome tells genome what to do
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T or F epigenetics are inherited and passed down
T
105
Pathway of light stimulus to secondary vision centers
RETINA(rods and cones-bipolar neurons-ganglion cells)-optic nerve-optic tract-Lateral Geniculate Nucleus and superior colliculus on side-(From LGN) optic radiations-primary visual cortex V1-secondary visual cortex (dorsal stream and ventral stream)
106
function of cornea outside of protection from foreign objects
filters out UV light, bends light
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function of horizontal and amacrine cells
allow neighboring cells to influence each other. lateral communication
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list cells in eye able to produce action potentials? graded/local potentials? photoreceptor cells, horizontal and amacrine cells, ganglion cells, bipolar cells
ACTION- Ganglion cells only
LOCAL- all others
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Type of photoreceptor cells concentrated in and around the fovea
cones
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type of photoreceptor cells that predominate in the periphery
rods
111
"blind spot"?
optic disc
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T or F. light hyperpolarizes the rod cell by closing cGMP gated sodium ion channels. brighter light further hyperpolarizes the cell by unbinding more cGMP through a cascade event
T. it is a long chain. In the dark, retinal cells are constantly releasing glutamate
113
What is faster, auditory or visual transduction?
Auditory
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this bipolar cell is depolarized by decreased glutamate released by a photoreceptor cell in response to a light stimulus (the glutamate typically inhibits the bipolar cell)
on-center or off-center bipolar cell?
on-center. this increases the release of glutamate in the bipolar cell to the on-center ganglion cell which causes it to fire
115
which is used for night vision rods or cones? day vision?
Rods for night, cones for day
116
how many different types of cones respond to different wavelengths of light
3 a mixture of all of them are firing at different rates to sum up and tell the individual what wavelength they are seeing
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cortical areas for color vision (V#)
V1, V2, V4
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trichromatic vision? dichromatic vision?
3 cone types (people and primates)
2 cone types (cats have weak dichromatic, dogs have strong red vs. blue)
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why does night vision need rods? why do people move their heads side to side when walking around at night?
they are more light sensitive than cones. they move their heads to access the rods, which are in the periphery
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lateral geniculate nucleus dorsal layers (3-6) receive input from rods or cones? parvocellular or magnocellular?
Cones. Parvocellular. color vision
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lateral geniculate nucleus ventral layers (1&2) receive input from rods or cones? parvocellular or magnocellular?
rods. magnocellular (larger so less acuity) light vision
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what part of the visual field needs a lot of brain for representation?
fovea
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Nasal retinal ganglion cells receive input from the inside or outside of the visual field? do they send axons across midline or to the same side of the brain?
Outside. cross the midline.
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what retinal ganglion cells (temporal or nasal) send information to the same side of the brain as the eye receiving the information? do animals of prey show more or less of this same side input?
Temporal. sees the inside of the visual field. animals of prey show less because they focus on more of the outside of the visual field, the eyes do not really share much of the field, input mostly comes from one or the other and more axons cross the midline (nasal ganglion cells)
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vision neurons excited by very fine detail (high frequency) or by big picture stuff (low frequency) shows what?
spatial frequency selectivity
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"where" pathway
dorsal stream. vision for movement and location
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"what" pathway
ventral stream. vision for recognition of objects and faces.
128
area V5 or MT (middle temporal) function PART OF DORSAL STREAM
Detection of motion MT can stand for MOTION. if you didn't have this, you would be seeing the world through a strobe light. over stimulation causes reports of moving things that aren't moving
129
Area V4 and IT (inferior temporal) function PART OF VENTRAL STREAM
sensitive to color and line orientation. but not to location. V4 is basic processing. more complex shapes are processed in IT. IT is also activated by biological stimuli
130
this area of the brain is selective to expertise when processing images. things that look very similar are distinguished between each other here (faces, sheep, cars, etc)
Right fusiform gyrus
131
face blindness is a result of damage to what structure? (cant detect differences between faces)
fusiform gyrus
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the magnocellular system would relate to what visual stream in the brain? (what do magnocellular receptive areas process?)
dorsal. MOVEMENT!
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the parvocellular system would relate to what visual stream in the brain? (what do parvocellular receptive areas process?)
ventral. colors, shapes WHAT
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dorsal stream. how is vision related to audition here?
identifies where the sound is coming from
135
Ventral stream. how is vision related to audition here?
determines what is being heard. processes and analyzes the sound
136
superior colliculus function
shared in all vertebrates. projects to dorsal stream directs behavioral responses toward motion and spatial locations. depth perception, location of sounds and stimuli (thermal sensing in snakes allows them to sense and locate prey)
137
If you have lesion/don’t have V1, you still have 5% of optic tract going to this structure. it allows you to still react to motion but you don’t consciously perceive things "blindsight"
superior colliculus
138
If you have lesion/don’t have V1, you still have 5% of optic tract going to this structure. it allows you to still react to motion but you don’t consciously perceive things. "blindsight"
superior colliculus
139
how many neurons are muscle fibers innervated by? how many fibers can one neuron innervate?
one. can innervate very many "divergence"
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what neurotransmitter causes muscular contraction? what receptors receive the NT
Ach. nicotinic ach receptors
141
actin and myosin. what surrounds what? what causes them to bind together for contraction?
actin surrounds myosin. ach opens sodium channels for depolarization
142
Main muscular receptor (innervated by primary and secondary afferent fibers)
muscle spindle. gives feedback to CNS when muscle is stretched- tell about velocity of stretch (primary afferent fiber) and the muscle length (secondary afferent fiber)
143
Golgi tendon organ
monitors force of muscle contractions. providing info for precisely controlling movement. activated during heavy muscle contractions. detect overloads that threaten muscle tears
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brain system associated with motorizing learned habits and regulating motor activity initiated in other brain areas
Basal ganglia mediates memory-guided motor patterns. prevents unwanted, unnecessary info
145
cerebellum and three sections of cerebellum
involved in coordination and fine motor control/balance. spino- cerebro- vestibulocerebellum
146
T or F. in precentral gyrus there aren't really hand or foot specific neurons, rather there are areas related to certain behaviors
T.
147
What secondary motor cortex is in charge of planning and initiation Supplementary motor area or premotor cortex
Supplementary motor area SMA
148
premotor cortex
movements in response to external cues (defensive behavior, flailing to get away from bees)
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neurons in premotor cortex that help in planning, initiating, organizing behaviors and motions to be carried out by M1, spinal cord, and cerebellum. copying motions in head
mirror neurons
150
huntingtons disease is the absence of what structure
basal ganglia. causes loss of motor control, primarily inhibition of motor control
151
autoimmune disorder in which antibodies destroy ACh receptor proteins. your body is killing your neurons
Myasthenia gravis
152
what sensory input is not relayed through the thalamus?
olfaction
153
chemical sensations
taste, smell
154
touch, pain, audition, muscle tension, joint position and movement, balance are all ______ sensory systems
mechanical
155
platypuses experience _____ through their bills (sensory info)
Mechanoreception and electroreception. electroreception allows platypus to sense very small environmental changes
156
area of brain that will only respond maximally when two types of stimuli are paired together (such as visual and auditory)
Polymodal
157
where does multisensory integration tend to occur?
around borders of specified brain areas "overlapping"
158
synesthesia (color)
leters, words, combinations of letters evoke color perceptions. Synesthesia- activation of some neurons automatically activate other groups of neurons in other brain location
159
Certain neurons sense different types of touch and only fire when those certain types stimulate it. all action potentials are still similar. the brain can just tell where they are coming from. What is this physiological phenomenon called
Labelled lines
160
Top-down processing (somatosensation)
non primary sensory areas tell thalamus to not give a certain signal or to increase a certain signal. like selective attention. don't need to feel non essential sensations (shoes on your feet
161
Labelled lines pathway-
peripheral sensory receptors insert to the dorsal roots of spinal cord-brainstem (where cranial nerves insert)- thalamus- primary sensory cortical areas (post central gyrus)- secondary (nonprimary) sensory cortical areas. thalamus, postcentral gyrus, nonprimary sensory areas all intercommunicate communicate with each other
162
receptors that detect pain and temperature
free nerve endings
163
touch receptor that is fast adapting to measure change (start and end of sensation)
meissners corpuscle
164
touch receptors that are slow adapting and provides input of ongoing duration
merkels discs
165
Vibratory receptors that are fast adapting, having large vague borders of sensation
pacinian corpuscle
166
stretch receptors that are slow adapting with large vague borders to identify stretch of skin
ruffini's ending
167
name of receptors that respond to noxous (painful) stimuli
nocireceptors
168
Prostaglandins, Serotonin, K+, and leukotrienes are all related how?
all chemicals involved in action potential generation for pain transmission. dorsal root ganglion pain fibers ultimately release glutamate
169
SCN9A function
promotes reception of pain
170
TRPV1 function
reception of dull pain, heat
171
CMR1 function
cool temperatures
172
TRP2 function
sensation of sharp sudden pain/high temperature causing reflexive drawback
173
pain modulation
top down regulation telling spinal cord how much of the pain you should be receiving. constant pain begins to be ignored
174
cingulate cortex activated during pain perception
sensory emotional and cognitive components to pain
175
how does the periaqueductal grey modulate pain perception?
interrupts ascending pathway and inhibits pain by stimulating medulla to spinal cord with spinal cord releasing opioids, PREVENTING any INCOMING pain signal from getting through
176
this technique activates the nucleus accumbens, an area rich in opioid receptors and neurotransmitters by causing a person to believe that they are receiving treatment to stop pain. so the body does the work for them
use of placebos. you need opiods in your system for this to work!
177
technique releases endogenous opioids by inducing a small amount of pain
acupuncture
178
what could cause phantom limb pain?
brain sees that you are missing your arm and freaks out because its not supposed to be like that
179
T or F analgesics (pain inhibitors like Tylenol) alleviate emotional distress
T. social rejection activates the same area as pain (anterior cingulate cortex)
