Exam 2 Flashcards
(75 cards)
1
Q
models of memory
A
- multi-store models: differentiate between short and long term memory
- unitary-store models: don’t differentiate between short and long term memory as much; lines more blurred
2
Q
iconic memory store
A
hold visual information briefly
3
Q
echoic memory store
A
holds auditory information briefly (think you don’t hear something until you ask and it comes to you)
4
Q
chunking
A
- putting info into chunks to remember instead of all at once
- we can remember up to 4 chunks in short term memory
5
Q
working memory model
A
- central executive: switching attention between tasks
- phonological loop: preserves order that words are presented
- visuo-spatial sketchpad: spatial and visual processing and temporary storage
- episodic buffer: holds info temporarily, acts as an intermediary between the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad using active binding
6
Q
memory capacity
A
how much an individual can process and store at the same time
7
Q
implicit memory vs. explicit memory
A
Implicit:
- non-declarative (can’t talk about what you know because it’s hard to explain)
- previous experience aid performance of task without you knowing (ex: riding a bike)
Explicit:
- declaritive
- conscious, intentional recollection of previous experiences and info (ex: recalling info for a test)
8
Q
consolidation theory
A
process lasting a long time that fixes information in long-term memory
9
Q
reconsolidation
A
- process where old memories are re-accessed
- useful for updating memories but can cause changes in memory or replaces memories
10
Q
decay
A
- AKA forgetting
- gradual loss of a memory’s substance
- we forget autobiographical memories slower
- we forget implicit memories slower than explicit
11
Q
proactive interference
A
the tendency for older memories to interfere with the retrieval of more recent experiences and knowledge
12
Q
retroactive interference
A
- forgetting caused by encoding new traces into memory in between the initial encoding of the target and when it is tested
- can be caused by learning material that is similar to the original learning
13
Q
repression
A
- according to Freud, very threatening or traumatic memories are often inaccessible to conscious awareness
- can be unintentional or intentional
- many can be recovered
14
Q
encoding specificity principle
A
- forgetting that occurs because we lack the appropriate cues
15
Q
areas that can be damaged in amnesia
A
the brain regions involved in consolidation and memory formation (mammillary body, fornix, thalamus, temporal cortex, hippocampus)
16
Q
types of long term memory
A
- declarsaive memory
- nondeclarative memory
17
Q
types of declarative memory
A
- episodic memory (knowledge of events)
- semantic memory (general knowledge of the world )
- both in medial temporal lobe and diencephalon
18
Q
types of nondeclarative memory
A
- procedural memory (skills, habits) (in basal ganglia)
- priming (influenced by a prior stimulus related to it; ex: identifying a cat better if you’ve just seen one) (in neocortex)
- simple classical conditioning (in amygdala and cerebellum)
- habituation and sensitization (reflex pathways)
19
Q
episodic memory
A
- storage and retrieval of specific events
- conscious recollection
20
Q
semantic memory
A
- general knowledge of objects,word meanings, facts, people
- lacks a connection to time or place
21
Q
temporal gradient
A
older memories are more resistant to damage than newer memories (over time, episodic memories become semantic) due to long-term consolidation and semanticisation
22
Q
familiarity
A
- a sense of knowing something without being able to remember the context
- fast and automatic
- “know” response
23
Q
recollection
A
- remembering contextual details about a memory
- slower and more attention-demanding
- “remember” response
24
Q
schema
A
well-integrated chunks of knowledge about the world, events, people, or actions
25
scripts
information about sequences of events that can be broken down into clusters
26
perceptual priming
- the prime and target share physical properties
- prime ex: NURSE
- target ex: N_R_E
27
conceptual priming
- the prime and target are related semantically
- prime ex: D_C_O
- target ex: DOCTOR
28
skill learning
the gradual improvement of performance with practice that generalizes to a range of stimuli within a domain of processing
29
traditional memory research
- recent events
- often intentional memory
- no social factors considered
- motivated to be accurate
30
everyday memory research
- memory for more remote events
- typically incidental learning
- social factors considered
- personal factors important
31
flashbulb memories
- a special neural mechanism for important memories
- includes info about the info, place news was heard, ongoing activity, emotional state of self and others, consequences for the individual
32
childhood amnesia
very few autobiographical memories before age 3
33
life script events
cultural expectations of major life events occurring between 15 and 30 years old
34
autobiographical memory models
- self-memory system model:
- autobiographical memory knowledge base concerned with lifetime periods (ex:living in a dorm), general events, and event-specific knowledge
- working self: concerned with goals
35
cognitive interview
- mental reinstatement of the environment
- encourages reporting of detail
- describing the event in various orders
- has a slight increase in incorrect details remembered
- not as effective when the event was stressful
36
strengths of prospective memory research
- much progress has been made in field
| - failures have been identified
37
limitations of prospective memory research
- research lacks ecological motivation
- differences between prospective and retrospective memory are exaggerated
- laboratory differs from real world
38
orthography
processing the spelling of words (deer vs dear)
39
phonology
processing the sound of words (rows vs rose)
40
semantics
processing the word meaning (light vs lamp)
41
lexicon
a mental dictionary of words and associated information
42
lexical decision task
- measures reaction time when shown two words to decide if they are real english words
- related words have a quicker reaction speed than unrelated words which are reacted to quicker than unrelated non-words
- words we see frequently are recognized faster
- words with similar meanings are recognized faster
- words with similar sounds are recognized faster
43
mcgurk effect
make use of lip-reading when listening
44
context in speech
- context effects perception later in processing
- phonemic restoration effect: participants unknowingly replaced deleted speech phonemes with ones that made sense
- ganong effect: ambiguous phonemes are more likely to be perceived as belonging to words than non-words
45
cohort model
- all words conforming to incoming sound are initially active and competing
- words are eliminated with each new piece of information
- uniqueness point: one word matches
46
parsing
analysis of syntactic (grammatical rules) and grammatical structure of sentences
47
prosodic cues
- help people to follow the speaker
- ex: stress, intonation, rhythm, word duration
- monotone speech impairs this
48
Garden-path model of parsing
- listeners and readers can be misled
- two-stage serial processing theory assumptions:
- only one syntactical structure considered
- meaning not involved in syntactical structure
- simplest syntactial structure is chosen
- minimal attachment principle (producing the fewest nodes (parts of a sentence))
- principle of late closure
49
constraint-based model of parsing
- one-stage parallel model based on connectionist architecture
- grammatical knowledge contrains interpretation
- various forms of information interact
- word ay be less ambiguous in some ways than others
permissible interpretations differ in frequency and probability
50
unrestricted race model of parsing
- all sources of info are used to identify syntactic structure
- unfavored syntactic structure is disconfirmed
- following discarding of structure, extensive reanalyis will occur
51
good-enough representations of parsing
a reader or listener's typical comprehension goal is "to get a parse (sentence analysis) of the input that is good enough to generate a response given the current task"
52
pragmatics
- concerned with intended rather than literal meaning (figurative language and metaphors)
- standard pragmatic model stages:
- literal meaning is accessed
- decision about sense of literal meaning
- search or suitablnon-literal meaning
- prediction model
53
common ground
- shared knowledge between speaker and listener
54
drawing inferences
- logical inference: depends on meaning of words
- bridging inferences: establish coherence between current and preceding part of text
- elaborative inferences: embellish text by using word knowledge
55
schema theory
- associative structure
- basis in multiple episodes
- lack of unit detail
- adaptability (rationalizes new info into one's own knowledge)
56
event-indexing model
- cognitive system that's attuned to perceive dynamic events
- readers monitor five situational aspects:
- protagonist
- temporality
- causilty
- spatiality
- intentionality
57
event-segmentation theory
- incremental updating of individual situational dimensions
58
strengths and weaknesses of event-based models
strengths:
- identify situational models that are typically ignored
- factors associated with updating have been established
weaknesses:
- only applicable to event sequences and simple texts
- de-emphasizes goals and reading ksills
- only focuses on comprehension of short texts
59
similarities and differences between speech and writing
similarities:
- there is an initial attempt to decide the overall meaning to be communicated
- followed by production
differences:
- speakers typically know their audience
- speakers receive moment-by-moment feedback from listener
- speakers have less time to plan
60
speech production
- strategies to make it easier: preformulation (using phases used before) and underspecification (using simplified expressions)
- four stages:
- semantic level
- syntactic level (grammatical structure)
- morphological level (units of meaning)
- phonological level (units of sound)
61
types of speech error
- spoonerisms: when the initial letter of two words are switched
- freudian slips: revealed someone's sexual desires
- semantic substitution: when a word is replaced by a word of similar meaning
- morpheme-exchange errors: inflexions or suffixes are in place but attached to the wrong word
- number-agreement errors: singular verbs are mistakenly used with plural words or vice versa
62
error detection
- comprehension system
| - conflict-based account
63
strengths of spreading-activation model for speech production
- predicts many speech errors that occur
- notion of spreading activation provides links to other cognitive processes
- plausible mechanisms for monitoring errors
64
limitations of spreading-activation model for speech production
- de-emphasizes processes related to the semantics
- not designed to predict the time taken to produce spoken words
- interactive processes are more apparent in errors than error-free speech
- insufficient focus on the extent of interactive processes
65
strengths of WEAVER++ model for speech production
- supported the notion that word production moves from lexical selection to morphological encoding to phonological encoding
- shifts focus away from errors and toward precise timing of word production processes
- makes testable predictions
66
limitations of WEAVER++ model for speech production
- narrow focus
- there is more interaction between processing stages than assumed
- fails to explain speech errors that seem to suggest parallel processing
- some anomia findings are inconsistent with the model
67
Broca's aphasia
- slow, non-fluent speech
- poor ability to produce syntactically correct sentences
- relatively intact speech comprehension
- associated with left frontal lobe damage (Broca's area)
68
Wernicke's aphasia
- fluent and apparently grammatical speech
- speech often lacks meaning
- severe problems with speech comprehension
- associated with damage to the left posterior temporal lobe (Wernicke's area)
69
anomia
- an impaired ability to name objects
70
jargon aphasia
- seem to speak grammatically
- can't find the word they want to say
- often produce neologism (made-up words)
- severe problems with comprehension
71
ways to enhance speech
- audience design: take account of specific needs of their listeners
- syntactic priming: speech tends to follow syntactic structure that has been heard recently
- gestures: used to aid understanding and clarification
- prosodic cues: intonation used to aid meaning
- discourse markers: extra words to help clarify
72
key processes of writing
- proposer: high-level processes of planning
- translator: converts message to words
- transcriber: converts word strings into text
- evaluator: monitors and evaluates production
73
three assumptions of memory research
- motivated
- influenced by the individual's personality and other characteristics
- influenced by social demands
74
theories to explain childood amnesia
- repression (Freud)
- cognitive self (no memories before concept of self is developed)
- social-cultural development (language is required to explain experiences)
- two-stage theory: absolute amnesia followed by relative amnesia
75
dual-stream model of speech
- dorsal: top down processes
| - ventral: bottom up processes
