Exam 2 Flashcards
1
Q
agonists
A
prime movers, supination to flexion
2
Q
antagonists
A
ex: triceps brachii
3
Q
Synergist
A
helps the agonist, synergizes movement
4
Q
Fixator
A
fixating joint that is proximal to joint you are moving at ex: deltoid, rhomboid
5
Q
organizations of fasicles
A
parellel, circular, convergent
6
Q
pennate:
A
short fibers are obliquely attached to tendon providing tension or force
7
Q
unipennate
A
one pennation angle along fascicles
8
Q
bipennate
A
long axis in middle 2 sides of pennation
9
Q
multipennate
A
many pennations at different longitudinal axis
10
Q
flexion
A
decrease angle
11
Q
extension
A
increase angle
12
Q
abduction
A
movement away from midline of body
13
Q
adduction
A
movement towards midline of body
14
Q
circumduction
A
combination of extension flexion abduction and adduction, moving in a circle
15
Q
lateral rotation / medial rotation
A
pivoting along a long axis ex: in humerus
16
Q
pronation / supination
A
involves forearm,
pronation = palms down
supination=palms up
17
Q
dorsiflexion / plantar flexion
A
specific to ankle joint
bring dorsum towards leg
plantar = going on tip toes
18
Q
inversion / eversion
A
specific to ankle joint
inversion: bring sole toward midline
eversion = bring sole of foot away from midline
19
Q
protraction / retraction
A
specific to mandible but can occur in other parts
protraction: bringing mandible out
retraction: bringing it back in
20
Q
depression / elevation
A
specific to mandible
depression: bringing jaw down
elevation= bringing jaw up
21
Q
opposition / reposition
A
opposition bringing thumb and index finger together
22
Q
muscles of mastication
A
masseter, temporalis, medial pterygoid, lateral pterygoid
23
Q
biceps brachii
A
origin: supraglenoid tubercle, coracoid process
insertion: radial tuberosity
help flex elbow joint
24
Q
Brachialis
A
help flex elbow joint
25
brachioradialis
help flex elbow joint
26
triceps brachii
origin: infraglenoid tubercle, posterior shaft of humerus
insertion: olecranon process
27
Muscles acting at the elbow
biceps brachii, brachialis, brachioradialis, triceps brachii, anconeus
28
Rotator cuff muscle
lateral rotators of humerus
abductor of the humerus
medial rotator of the humerus
29
lateral rotators of humerus
infraspinatus, teres major
30
abductor of humerus
supraspinatus: abductor
31
medial rotator of humerus
subscapularis
32
Muscles acting at the shoulder
should adductors / flexors, shoulder adductors, shoulder abductor,
33
shoulder adductors/flexors
bring limb toward midline, anterior to shoulder joint
coracobrachialis
pectoralis major
34
Shoulder adductors
extensors, posterior to shoulder joint, teres major latissimus dorsi
35
shoulder abductor
can also flex and extend the shoulder, deltoid helps the supraspinatus muscle with flexion, 3 bellies can help with flexion and extension of shoulder joint
36
Muscles acting at knee
knee extensors, knee flexors
37
knee extensors
```
common insertion: tibial tuberosity
help with extension
Vastus lateralis
Vastus medialis
Rectus femoris
Vastus intermedius
```
38
Knee flexors
```
Common origin: ischial tuberosity
Hamstrings made of 3 muscles
Biceps femoris
Semimembranosus
Semitendinosus (more posterior)
```
39
Muscles acting at the hip
hip adductors, hip abductors, hip flexors, hip extensors
40
hip adductors
```
Adductor longus
Pectineus
Adductor brevis
Adductor magnus
Gracilis
```
41
Hip abductors
gluteus medius
| gluteus minimus
42
hip flexors
iliopsoas (psoas major and iliacus)
| rectus femoris
43
hip extensors
Gluetus maximus
Semitendinosus
Biceps femoris (long head)
Semimembranosus
44
Muscular dystrophy
Inherited group of muscle disorders
Skeletal muscle degenerates and is replaced by adipose and fibrous connective tissue
Most common and serious form is Duchenne muscular dystrophy
– X-linked recessive gene
– 1 in 3500 births, mostly male
– Lacks protein called dystrophin
45
basic properties of muscular tissue
Excitability: electrical impulses sent to the muscle cell, and muscle cells respond to the stimulus
Contractility: once stimulated its able to shorten or contract
Elasticity: when stretched or lengthened, it will go back to original shape and length
Extensibility: lengthening of the muscle
46
Cardiac muscle characteristics
Found in heart myocardium
“Y” shaped or branched fibers
Uninucleate or binucleate
Intercalated discs (where gap junctions are, and desmosomes make up disk) Desmosomes hold cells together, gap junctions allow things to pass through
Striated
Auto-rhythmic: can contract without stimulus of nervous system (this ability comes from intercalated discs)
Involuntary
47
Smooth muscle
```
Found in walls of visceral organs, GI tract
Fusiform shape (football)
Uninucleate
No striations
Fatigue resistant
Involuntary
```
48
skeletal muscle
```
Large cylindrical shape
Multinucleated : (myoblast in embryonic development fuse together and nuclei remain intact and now they are one cell)
Formed from the fusion of myoblasts
Innervated at neuromuscular junctions
Long cylindrical
Striated
Voluntary
```
Vascular
49
functions of skeletal muscle
Movement
Maintenance of posture
Temperature regulation
Storage and movement of materials
Support abdominal organs
Joint stabilization
50
endomysium
wraps muscle cells (muscle fibers)
51
perimysium
wraps fascicles
52
epimysium
wraps entire muscles
53
deep fascia
wraps muscle group
54
tendon
attach muscle to bone
55
muscle cells (fibers)
smallest unit make up muscle fascicles
56
fascicles
bundles of muscle fibers, make up entire organs
57
blood vessels
provide nourishment oxygen delivery and waste removal to the skeletal and other muscles
58
nerves
attaches to muscles at neuromuscular junction
59
aponeurosis
flat tendon that attaches muscle to bone
60
origin
less moveable attachment site
61
insertion
moveable attachment site
62
neuromuscular junction
site where a motor neuron meets a muscle cell and innervates the muscle
63
sarcolemma
plasma membrane of of the muscle fiber
64
sarcoplasm
cytoplasm
65
T-tubules
extension of the sarcolemma surrounding myofibril
66
sarcoplasmic reticulum
endoplasmic reticulum for muscle cells stores, releases, and retrieves calcium ions
67
terminal cisternae
portion of the sarcoplasmic reticulum that is near T-tubules, releases calcium
68
myofibrils:
tubelike structure in muscle cell, Chains of sarcomeres are linked together runs the entire length of the muscle fiber and attaches to the sarcolemma Contains thick and thin filaments, functional unit of contraction
69
sarcomeres
functional unit of cell, (where contraction and relaxation take place, contain filaments within them (thick filaments, and thin actin filaments), defined by Z-disk borders (edges) end of one sarcomere and beginning of next
Thick: myosin filament, myosin head
Thin: actin filament, actin binding site
M-line: middle line of sarcomere
When binding occurs the Z-discs move closer to the M-line
70
thick filament
myosin
71
thin filament
actin
72
troponin
lock keeps tropomyosin to binding sites
73
tropomyosin
chain that blocks actin binding sites
74
motor end plate
specific part of sarcolemma
75
Ach
acetyl choline is a neurotransmitter released from the synapse (synaptic vesicle), to initiate muscle contraction
76
Rigor Mortis
Death is not an event but a process
Tissues continue to live after the brain, heart and lungs fail
A few hours after death, ATP runs out
Myosin cannot detach from actin
Calcium cannot be taken up by sarcoplasmic reticulum
This leads to the continual muscle contraction of rigor mortis
After 15-24 hours the myofibrils begin to deteriorate allowing muscles to relax
77
tetanus
Caused by the bacterium Clostridium tetani
| Excessive muscle contraction
78
botulism
Caused by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum
Muscular paralysis
Botox
79
CNS
Central nervous system
| -brain and spinal cord
80
PNS
peripheral nervous system
| ganglion nerve
81
afferent
information being carried towards
| arrive, neurons grouped together neuronal network, sensory, dorsal root ganglion
82
efferent
information being carried away
motor
ventral root
83
sensation
sensory receptors detect stimuli afferent information sent to CNS
includes: special senses, somatic senses, visceral senses
84
special senses
vision, hearing, taste, smell, balance / equilibrium
85
somatic senses
information from skin joints and skeletal muscles
86
visceral senses
information from internal organs and blood vessels
87
Response (motor)
efferent information leaves CNS effectors (muscles or glands) respond
includes somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system
88
somatic nervous system
"voluntary" innervates skeletal muscle
89
autonomic nervous system
"involuntary" innervates cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands
90
neurons
excitable functional cells that transmit nerve impulses
91
glial cells
non-excitable cells that support and protect the neurons, in both central and peripheral nervous system
92
dendrites
take information to the cell body
93
cell body (soma)
the cell body contains the nucleus and most of the major organelles
94
axon hillock
most proximal part of axon where electrical impulse travels
95
axon
a fiber that emerges from the cell body and projects to target cells. That single axon can branch repeatedly to carry nerve impulses to many target cells
96
myelin sheath
made from glial cells, myelin acts as insulation much like the plastic or rubber that is used to insulate electrical wires. a key difference between myelin and the insulation on a wire is that there are gaps in the myelin covering of an axon
97
oligodendrocyte
type of glial cell produces myelin sheath
98
synapses
neuron-neuron contact
99
nodes of Ranvier
gap between myelin sheets important to the way that electrical signals travel down the axon
100
Axon terminals
make the connections with target cells at synapses
101
astrocytes
control ionic external environment induce formation of the blood brain barrier,
102
Myelin
fatty substance made up of cells
structure: made by oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS
white fatty coating around axons
helps produce nodes of Ranvier
function: supports protects and insulates axon increases speed of conduction
103
Gray matter
contains neuron cell bodies and dendrites nuclei, cell body and dendrytes
104
white matter
contains neuron axons and myelin sheaths axons surrounded by myelin
105
ganglia
where neuron cell bodies and dendrites are found in the PNS
106
nerves
neuron axons found here in the PNS
107
sensory neurons
send information to CNS afferent
108
motor neurons
sends information away from CNS in PNS
109
Nerve differences than neurons
cable like bundles of axons in the PNS
endoneurium wraps individual axons made up of connective tissue
perineurium: wraps axon fascicles
epineurium: wraps entire nerves
110
multiple sclerosis
Patches of myelin in brain and spinal cord destroyed
Autoimmune disease
Symptoms: blindness, weakness, numbness
111
Alzheimer's disease
Progressive degenerative disease of the brain
Symptoms: Memory loss, depression, disorientation
Associated with abnormal protein aggregates: Intracellular tau tangles Extracellular amyloid plaques
112
peripheral nerve regeneration
Body's ability to repair itself, if we sever a nerve we can regrow it
Shwann cells help with this
Examples: arm falling asleep, severing nerve,
113
Anencephaly
Disorder at the cranial end of the neural tube
Substantial or complete absence of a brain
Infants rarely live longer than a few hours following birth
Usually detected with prenatal ultrasound
114
spina bifida
Disorder at the caudal end of the neural tube
Vertebral arch is not fully formed
May be mild (occulta) or severe (meningocele or myelomeningocele)
Sufficient dietary folic acid prevents spina bifida
Types: spina bifida occulta (least severe), meningocele, myelomeningocele (most severe)
115
meninges
Structure
Connective tissues surrounding the brain and spinal cord
Dura, arachnoid, and pia maters
Function
Separate brain from skull
Enclose and protect blood vessels supplying brain
Contain and circulate cerebrospinal fluid
116
Cerebral Spinal fluid
```
Functions
Buoyancy
Protection (cushion)
Environmental stability
Location and Composition
Produced in the choroid plexus
Clear, colorless fluid
Circulates through the ventricles and subarachnoid space surrounding the CNS
```
117
hydrocephalus
```
Definition: Excessive CSF
Causes:
Obstruction of CSF flow
Overproduction of CSF
Impaired drainage of CSF
Treatments:
Ventriculoperitoneal shunt
Endoscopic third ventriculostomy
```
118
cerebrum
Location of conscious thought processes and complex intellectual functions
Two hemispheres (connected by the corpus callosum)
Gyri and sulci increase the surface area (more cortex)
Gray matter and white matter
119
Lobes of Cerebrum
Frontal lobe: Decision making, personality, verbal communication, voluntary motor control of skeletal muscles
Parietal lobe: Sensory interpretation of textures and shapes, understanding speech
Temporal lobe: Auditory and olfactory experience
Occipital lobe: Vision
Insula: Taste
120
Cerebellum
Functions
Fine-tunes, smoothens and coordinates muscle movements
Balance/equilibrium
121
brain stem
Bidirectional passageway between cerebrum and spinal cord
Contains many autonomic and reflex centers essential for survival
Point of attachment for cranial nerves
122
Medulla
```
Cardiac center
Vasomotor center
Respiratory center
Reflexes
Coughing, sneezing, gagging, vomiting etc.
```
123
Limbic System
“Emotional brain”
| Involved in emotion, memory and motivation
124
Dermatomes
```
A specific
segment of skin
supplied by a
single pair of
spinal nerves
```
125
nerve plexuses
```
• Networks of
interweaving spinal
nerves
• Split into multiple
“named” nerves that
innervate various
body structures
• Principal plexuses
– Cervical
– Brachial
– Lumbar
– Sacral
```
126
Cervical plexus
```
• Spinal nerves C1-C4
• Innervates the
anterior neck and
parts of the head
and shoulder
• The phrenic nerve
innervates the
diaphragm
```
127
brachial plexus
Spinal nerves C5-T1
• Innervates the pectoral
girdle and upper limb
128
lumbosacral plexus
```
Lumbar Plexus
• Spinal nerves L1-L4
• Innervates the anterior
and medial thigh Sacral Plexus
• Spinal nerves L4-S4
• Innervates all of the
lower limb except the
anterior/medial thigh
```
129
monosynaptic reflexes
```
The simplest of all
reflexes
• The stretch reflex
is an example
(patellar or knee-jerk
reflex)
```
130
polysynaptic reflexes
```
More complex
neural pathway
• Includes
interneurons
• The withdrawal
reflex is an
example
```
131
somatic nervous system
- One motor neuron to target
| - Innervates skeletal muscle
132
autonomic nervous system
- Chain of two motor neurons to target
- Preganglionic and postganglionic neurons
- Innervates cardiac muscle, smooth muscle & glands
- Divided into sympathetic & parasympathetic divisions
133
sympathetic divisions
Preganglionic axons synapse in sympathetic ganglia
• Sympathetic ganglia are near the CNS and vertebral column
(called sympathetic chain ganglia and prevertebral ganglia) Functions
• “Fight or Flight”
• Activated in emergency
situations and when
excited or stressed
Exit from CNS
• Thoracic and lumbar
spinal cord
134
parasympathetic division
• Preganglionic axons synapse in parasympathetic ganglia
• Parasympathetic ganglia are near or within the target organ
(called terminal or intramural ganglia) Functions
• “Rest and Digest”
• Conserves energy and
replenishes energy stores
Exit from CNS:
• Brainstem (CN III,VII,IX,X)
• Sacral spinal cord
135
Enteric Nervous system
```
• Large network of
neurons in the wall of the
digestive tract (contains
as many neurons as the
spinal cord)
• Functions to
automatically control
digestive system
functions
• Can be influenced by the
ANS, but can also
operate independently of
the brain and spinal cord
```
136
General Senses
(temperature, pain, touch, stretch, and pressure)
137
special senses
(gustation, olfaction, vision, equilibrium, and audition)
138
endocrine glands
are ductless glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream, slow effect, long term
139
hormones
are carried throughout the body by the bloodstream - initiate specific actions in target cells (cells that have receptors for the hormone
140
tropic hormones
Hormones that affect the release of other hormones
Ex. Gonadotropins (LH and FSH) are hormones that affect the release of sex hormones from the gonads
141
endocrine system
acts using hormones
can affect any cell in the body (target cells have hormone receptors)
has widespread effects
has slower but longer lasting responses
more long lasting, slower
142
amine hormone
modified amino acid ex: norepinephrine
143
peptide hormone
short chains of linked amino acid ex: oxytocin uterus contraction milk ejection
144
protein hormone
long chains of linked amino acids ex: growth hormone
145
steroid hormone
derived from the lipid cholesterol ex: testosterone and progesterone hydrophobic
