Exam 2 - Chapters 5,6,8,9 Flashcards

Question

Pillar 3 of Marx's Materialist Conception of History: Theory of History (Historical Modes of Production) Describe the modes of production in Ancient Greek and Roman Socieites..

Answer 1

- class distinctions emerged (citizen vs. slave) with SURPLUS WEALTH leading to social hierarchies - Patricians (aristocrats) - Plebeians (commoners) - Slaves - class relations emerged due to surplus wealth and private ownership of land

Answer 2

- Emerged from the tribal mode of production with a specific mode of production different than Greek / Roman city states. - Absense of private ownership of land - Autonomous villages and communities - Different than Greece and Rome, where class distinctions first appeared. - Hydraulic despotism (Egypt / Iraq) -- Control of water resources -- Irrigate lands and control floods -- a small class (priests, military, soldiers) maintains control to manage the irrigation systems and keep production going.. - China / India -- When population increased, it didn't lead to radical changes. - Climactic conditions and available lands enabled continuity of the social system - NO IMPULSE TO CREATE CITIES AND TOWNS.

Answer 3

Greece / Rome the distinction between CITIZENS and SLAVES created a tripartite distinction: - patricians (aristocrats) - Plebeians (commoners / citizens) - Slaves (non citizens, captured in war / worked to death)

Answer 4

tribal societies

Answer 5

- humans origionally appeared as a tribal heard animal - we produce in communities (families, tribes) - in simple socities there is a low division of labour, strong family ties, it is communal.. and they only think of themselves as individuals later.. - basically the reversal of rousseau

Answer 6

- predominantly agricultural and commnity based - producing class are not slaves, they are serfs - subsistence agriculture - small capitalists and traditional, skilled guilt masters and artisans - extensive rules governed the making and selling commodities under the craft guilds - distinctive social structure = the differentiation of princes, nobility, clergy and peasants in the country - masters, journeymen, apprentices all laboured int wons. - defined the ownership and privledges of the aristocratic class. - accumulated wealth intensified conflict between rural and town interests.

Answer 7

- the development ofmarket oriented economy, population growth and improved domestic agricultural techniques became historically significant after the rise of the urban bourgeiose and decline of feudalism - social change is not determined by economic alone, - complex division of labour and the relation between formally free wage labour and private capital defines INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM. - working population = -- landless workers selling labour -- capitalists extracted surplus production - social life was changed = legal system that reflected bourgeois power and suited needs of industrial society - forced long working hours and discipline on landless urban workers.

Answer 8

- communism - communism would be the negation of the negation (dialectics) - would come from capitalism contradictions - come closer to human emancipation and recovery - no alienation under communism because "human labor is fulfilling, free from coersion, and will correspond to humans nature" - socialized production makes it possible for humans to work as artists.. allowing creative powers to be expressed

Answer 9

It foucses on the social realions that are SPECIFIC TO CAPITALISM. - the primary relation is between the bourgeoise (owners of the means of production) and the proletariat (workers who seell their labour)

Answer 10

- the ANTAGONISTIC CLASS RELATION betwen those who own means of production and those who do not. e.g., factory owners exploring factory workers for SURPLUS VALUE.

Answer 11

production for EXCHANGE VALUE (profit) rather than for direct consumption. e.g., mass production of consumer goods for global markets

Answer 12

- A system of beliefs that MYSTIFIES REAL SOCIAL RELATIONS, making capitalist exploitation appear normal and natural... e.g., the ideas of the ruling class are in every epoch of the ruling ideas. e.g., the American dream as an ideological construct that legitimizes capitalism

Answer 13

A class-in-itself = workers sharing the same conditions but lacking awareness of their common interests. A class- for-itself = when workers become aware of their shared exploitation and develop CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS e.g., the rise of labour unions in the 19th century. .

Answer 14

1. Alienation from the product 2. alienation from productive processes 3. alienation from species-being 4. alienation from other human beings

Answer 15

workers do not own or control the products they produce e.g., factory workers producing goods they cannot afford

Answer 16

labour becomes monotonous and rationalized, dictated by capitalist efficiency e.g., assembly line workers performing repetitive tasks.

Answer 17

loss of creative and imaginative labouring, reducing human potential. capitalism reduces labor to a mere means of survival, stripping away creativity and self expression e.g., workers unable to express individuality or creativity in their jobs

Answer 18

competition and commodification of labor isolate individuals from each other. e.g., workers competing for limited job opportunities.

Answer 19

- a totalizing thoeyr connected to SOCIETY, HISTORY, CAPITALISM, AND HUMAN NATURE. - marx argues that alienation arises because workers are separated from the MEANS OF PRODUCTION and the products they create. 4 types: - alienation from product - alienation from productive process - alienation from species being - alienation from other human beings

Answer 20

ideology conceals the true nature of alienation by normalizing capitalist social relations

Answer 21

- focuses on how changes in the material conditions drive historical development coined by engles

Answer 22

the human essence realized through creative, productive activities

Answer 23

under capitalism, labor is commodified and sold for wages

Answer 24

through meaningful labour hindered by alienation in capitalism

Answer 25

- dialectics and historical development trhough contradicitons and resolutions

Answer 26

critiqued religion as a human projection, influencing marx view of IDOELOGY

Answer 27

influenced his analysis of capitalism and exploitation

Answer 28

yes - it structurees both economic and social relations

Answer 29

the base of society is the economic structure - how goods are produced and distributed

Answer 30

includes everything that isnt directly related to production: laws, politics, culture and ideology. the superstructure reflects and serves to legitimize the economic base

Answer 31

ideolgoy ideology serves to divide and pacity the working class, preventing them from recognizing their shared struggle

Answer 32

to justify differential pay structures and maintain class divisions e.g., racialized workers historically kept in lower paying jobs, white workers elevated. if they are segregated by race, gender... then they will be less likely to rise up and more likely to compete with eachother

Answer 33

- when the contradictions within capitalism become so pronounced the system can no longer sustain itself. - not from affirmative action or equity programs. - class consciousness --> workers rise up and overthrow capitalism

Answer 34

A systme where produciton is driven by profit rather than direct human need.

Answer 35

- Private ownership (of the means of production [ factories, land, machinery]) - Wage labor (where workers sell their labor power to capitalists in exchange for wages) - Commodity production for exchange, meaning goods are made not for immediate use but for sale in the marker.. GOAL = the accumulation of capital - where profits are reinvested to expand production and generate more profit

Answer 36

- it systematically separates workers from the means of production, forcing them to sell their labour to survive - Unlike previous systems, *exchange value (money prices) dominate over use values (the actual usefulness of goods)* - production is not driven by personal need or social good but by profit maximization - Capitalism introduces a new social relation where commodities and money appear as having INHERENT VALUE rather than being expressions of labour

Answer 37

Ownership of means of production = Lords own land, serfs work it Labor Relation = Sefs work for protection, bound to land Goal of Production = subsistence + surplus for lords

Answer 38

Ownership of means of production: Slave owners own both means and labour Labor Relations = Enslaved people are forced to work Goal of production = Wealth for slave owners

Answer 39

Ownership = capitalists own means, workers sell labour Labor Relation = Wage labor = formal freedom but necessary for survival Goal of production = profit maximization

Answer 40

ownership of means of production = state or workers own production labor relations = collective labor goal of production = social good over profit

Answer 41

capitalism gives workers 'formal freedom'. they can "choose" jobs, but they must work to survive. Under capitalism, *labor power itself becomes a commodity*, making it different from previous systems where labor was either directly coerced or tied to land.

Answer 42

- capitalism is not just an economic system... it reschapes society, culture, and human relations.. - social status is determined by wealth and consumption** not just by social roles or kingship. - people are valued by what they own and produce**, not just by the social roles or kinship. - Commodity fetishism** makes people see commodities as having inherent value instead of recognizing the human labor behind them

Answer 43

1. Enslosure Movement -- Peasants were forced off land into wage labor 2. Expansion of trade and markets -- capitalist production developed to supply growing demands 3. Technological innovations -- allowed for mass production and efficiency 4. Creation of a labor market -- Workers had to sell labor power as a commodity 5. Development of banking and credit systems -- facilitated capital investment and accumulation

Answer 44

Adam Smith - A classical political economist

Answer 45

- smith beleived huamns have a natural tendency to exchange goods and services. - unlike other animals, humans engage in voluntary trade, which increases efficiency and prosperity

Answer 46

- specialiation of tasks increases productivity - Efficiency improves because: -- workers get better at their specific tasks -- production speeds up -- Innovation occurs.

Answer 47

- people produce goods not out of generosity but self-interst - the INVISIBLE HAND guides individuals self interests to benefit society

Answer 48

- Smith saw labor as central to value, but unlike Marx, he did not analyze exploitation. - he believed the market naturally regulated labor value through supply and demand.

Answer 49

- Marx critized smith for failing to see that under capitalism, workers are exploited. - while Smith saw labor as valuable, Marx argued that capitalists appropriate surplus labor (the value workers create beyond their waves)

Answer 50

- natural forms = objects as they are in nature or made for direct use - value forms = objects as commodities, with exchange value determined by labor and market forces

Answer 51

- A commodity is a good produced for exchange at the market. - Commoditization occurs when things (like labour or knowledge) are transformed into marketable goods.

Answer 52

- Use value = the inherent usefulness of an obejt (e.g., a coat keeps you warm) - Exchange value = the price the object commands in the market, which is based on labour power.

Answer 53

1. they satisfy a need or want 2. They have physical properties that determine their usefulness 3. They exist independently of market exchange (e.g., a handmade tool still has use value outside of capitalism)

Answer 54

- exchange occurs through equivalent value forms where commodities are valued based on measurable units (e.g., money, weight, quantity).

Answer 55

1. concrete labour 2. abstract labour 3. socially necessary labour

Answer 56

specific work that creates use values (e.g., weaving cloth, baking bread) (use values are the inherent usefulness of an object [coat keeps you warm])

Answer 57

the *general labour time* necessary to produce commodities under capitalism, measured in socially necessary labour time

Answer 58

- the labour time required to produce a commodity UNDER AVERAGE CONDITIONS of production

Answer 59

- labour power is a commodity that workers sell to capitalists - workers do not sell their labour directly, but their ability to work for a given period

Answer 60

simple commodity exchange = trading goods for mutual benefit. - C-M-C (Commodity --> Money --> Commodity) Capitalist commodity exchange = Maximizing profit through production - M-C-M (Money --> Commodity --> More Money)

Answer 61

Constant Capital = Machinery, raw materials (do not change in value) Variable Capital = Wages (source of surplus value)

Answer 62

Necessary labour power = the work needed to produce value equivalent to the worker's wage The Historical Minimum is the lowest subsistence level needed to sustain the working class..

Answer 63

The extra value created by workers, but taken by capitalists

Answer 64

absolute surplus value = extending the workday (more hours, same pay) relative surplus value = increasing productivity (machines, speed, efficiency)

Answer 65

- people see commodities as having inherant value, ignoring the labour behind them. - Social relations are obscured --> people relate to things and not each other - Workers become alienated

Answer 66

- Durkheim focused on how SOCIETY MAINTAINS COHESION despire increasing individualism and social change. -- argued that social solitary and moral facts held society together... - Marx focused on the role of economic structures and class conflict in shaping society -- viewed society through a lens of economic determinism. -- but durkheim believed that moral and social forces shaped society more than economic ones.

Answer 67

thorugh shared values, norms, an dobligations

Answer 68

social cohesion

Answer 69

bonds based on shared beliefs, traditions, and duties

Answer 70

- regulating behaviour, providing social stability and ensuring individuals connection to the collective

Answer 71

Moral facts are objective, external phenomena that exist independently of individual opinions. - they govern behaviour through social norms. and are imposed by society e.g., the prohibition of murder in societies is a moral fact that transcends individual choices.

Answer 72

collective rules that guide behaviour in society social norms regulate behaviour, create predictability, and reinforce social cohesion

Answer 73

- relationships and communications between individuals, which create and maintain these norms.

Answer 74

sanctions are reactions that aim to reward or punish behaviours to enforce social norms. - positive sanctions = rewards for acceptable behaviour (praise, promotions) - negative sanctions = punishments for deviating from norms (fines, imprisonment)

Answer 75

1) Individualism = a rise of individual rights and freedoms, leading to social fragmentation and weakened community ties 2) Social fragmentation = the breakdown of traditional social structures and the rise of modern urbanism 3) Social Solidarity = Durkheim was concerned about the erosion of social solidarity in the face of these changes and how to restore it.

Answer 76

- Comte developed positivism (the idea that society can be studied scientifically through objective, empirical methods) - emphasis on empirical data and scientific observation rather than philosophical speculation

Answer 77

- Durkheim rejected subjectivity of interpretations of moral facts, arguing that they exist objectively and can be studied scientifically - Moral facts are external to the individual and exert a force on individual behaviour an social interactions

Answer 78

social facts emerge through SOCIALIZATION and become part of the collective consciousness. these facts influence and regulate individual behaviour, helping society function in an orderly manner.. e.g., the law (a social fact) dictates appropriate behaviour like the prohibition of theft

Answer 79

- articulates his vision for sociology as a scientific discipline focused on the study of social facts and moral forces. - calls for a scientific approach to understand the social structures and the factors that bind society together.

Answer 80

1. Divison of labour in society 2. suicide 3. elementary forms of religious life

Answer 81

- explores the role of SOCIAL SOLIDARITY and modern society's division of labour leads to INTERDEPENDENCE. durkheim distinguishes between mechanical and organic solidarity

Answer 82

- analyzes the social causes of suicide, linking it to SOCIAL INTERGRATION AND REGULATION introduces the concept of anomie (normlessness)

Answer 83

examines how religion contributes to social cohesion and the formation of a collective consciousness.

Answer 84

- the force that binds individuals together in society - in traditional societies, mechanical solidarity prevails, based on similarity - in modern societies, organic solidarity emerges, based on specialization and interdependence. - Durkheim believed that social cohesion requires shared norms, values, and duties

Answer 85

Durkheims concept that huamns have a dual nature - individual dimension: the personal self, focused on individual desires - social dimension: the collective self, which is shaped by social norms and responsibilities

Answer 86

the mechanisms of solitary are moral rules and collective rituals maintain solitary in a society Mechanical solidarity = found in small, traditional societies where people share similar work and beliefs Organic solidarity = found in modern, industrial societies where people depend on one another due to the division of labour.

Answer 87

the shared set of beleifs, values and norms that people in a society should hold in common. - ensures social cohesion - in mechanical socieiteis, the collective consciousness is STRONG and largely uniform. - in organic solidarity, it becomes more diverse, but is STILL NECESSARY for maintaining social order

Answer 88

- the process by which specialized tasks are distributed among individuals in society leading to INTERDEPENDENCE mechanical solidarity = little division of labour organic solidarity = division of labour is highly specialized with individuals performing tasks that contribute to the whole society

Answer 89

- mechanical solidairty, bonds are formed thorugh SHARED EXPERIENCES AND COMMON GOALS. - in organic solidarity, bonds are formed through INTERDEPENDENCE, where individuals rely on each other's specialized contributions

Answer 90

moral density = the strength of social norms and how deeply embedded they are in society dynamic density = the level of interaction in a society. Increased interaction leads to more social regulation and stronger solidarity

Answer 91

1. Volume = the size of a group or society. Larger societies may have a more complex collective conscience 2. Intensity = the STRENGTH of shared beliefs and values within the group 3. Determinateness: the Clarity and specificity of social norms 4. Content = the actual values and norms that are shared within the group

Answer 92

- punishments for violating the moral or legal codes of a society (e.g., prison for committing a crime) - these sanctions help enforce social order and maintain mechanical solidarity

Answer 93

- these sanctions are focused on resoring balance in society by ensuring fairness (e.g., compensation for damages) - they are more common in societies based on organic solidarity where interdependence and specialization exist.

Answer 94

realism assserts that soical facts, including moral facts, exist independently of individual thought. they are objective, and can be studied through empirical observation

Answer 95

moral facts are formed through socialization. they are passed on through institutions (family, education, religion) these facts become part of the collective conscience and regulate individual behaviour

Answer 96

normal = the evolution of tasks to become more specialized and lead to greater interdependence abnormal = disruptions in the division of labour, such as when individuals or groups are excluded or marginalized in the labour process

Answer 97

anomie = a state of normlessness where individuals feel disconnected from society.. this often arises during periods of rapid social change a state of social disorder where the division of labor fails to regulate social functions, leading to a breakdown of social cohesion and a sense of normlessness.

Answer 98

forced labour or situations where the dividion of labour is. imposed in a rigid or exploitative manner can lead to social inequality and disintegration

Answer 99

organic intergration refers to the idea that societies need to ensure that individual are linked through their roles, responsibilities, and natural talents to maintain social cohesion.

Answer 100

he aimed to establish sociology as a scientific discipline distinct from philosophy and psychology

Answer 101

- through social facts. - according to durkehim, sociology must observe social facts scientifically. THis enables us to have an objective understanding of society

Answer 102

sociological explanations must focus on social facts and collective phenomena philosophical explanations often dive into abstract concepts (like justice or morality) psychological explanations focus on the individual mind or behaviour.. sociology is concerned with collective norms, beliefs, institutions, and guide behaviour

Answer 103

a social fact is any EXTERNAL influence on the individual that shapes behaviour (norms, laws, values, institutions). it exists *outside* of the individual but *exerts control* over their actions

Answer 104

these facts are general thorughout society, meaning they are widespread and common across members of a given society

Answer 105

they push individuals to behave in ways that align with societal expectations, limiting individual freedom

Answer 106

it means that they have a unique nature. sui generis = latin for "of their own kind"

Answer 107

these facts cannot be reduced to the sum of individual actions and should be studied as distinct entities that shape society and individuals in ways that individual psychology or biology cannot explain.

Answer 108

the facicity of social facts means that they are REAL and OBJECTIVE. they exist outside of the individual and influence behaviour in ways that are independent of personal belief or perception these facts must be observed, classified, and analyzed empirically rather than through subjective interpretation.

Answer 109

because they behave like objective phenomena that can be observed, measured, and studied systematically

Answer 110

allowed him to anlayze them scientifically, ensuring sociology's empirical and objective basis.

Answer 111

they are essential to study social facts because they offer tangible evidence of social phenomena

Answer 112

1. sanctions = rewards or punishments for behaviour 2. statistical data = crime rates, marriage rates 3. Rituals = religious or cultural practices. these manifestations allow sociologists to measure and quantify social facts, ensuring objective, verifiable findings

Answer 113

normal social phenomena are those that align with society's established norms and contribute to its social cohesion PATHOLOGICAL phenomena = represent disruptions to the normal functioning of a society (e.g., extreme crime rates, deviance, social disorder).

Answer 114

both should be studied, but the focus should be on understanding the causes of pathology and how it impacts social order

Answer 115

that it is a normal social phenomenon - it exists in all societies and can even serve social functions, such as reinforcing norms and promoting social change

Answer 116

because it helps maintain order and solidarity by highlighting societal boundaries

Answer 117

social facts influence one another because they are interconnected within the broader social system

Answer 118

causal relationships e.g., one social fact (religion, economy) leads to the emergence or shaping of another (family structures, social norms)

Answer 119

Caused, Function e.g., the family structure (a social fact) is influenced by economic organization (another social fact) the function of education, as a social institution, is to perpetuate social solidarity and integrate individuals into the wider social system

Answer 120

1) comparative method 2) concomitant method

Answer 121

- the comapritive method involves comparing different societies or social phenomena to identify patterns, causes, and variations in social facts - by comparing different social systems or historical periods, sociologists can gain insights into how social facts emerge and evolve

Answer 122

- concomitant variation method seeks to establish relationships between two variables by obsering how they VARY TOGETHER across different contexts. - if one social fact consistently varies with another (e.g., social integration and suicide rates), it suggests a causal relationship

Answer 123

- durkheim aknowledged that biological, psychological, and individual factors might contribute to suicide. - he focused on the social determinates of suicide.. - social conditions, such as economic hardship, social isolation, and family breakdown are critical factors influencing suicide rates

Answer 124

- durkheim emphasized that suicide rates are not random but are influenced by social factors. - he argued that suicide rates could be *predicible* and *explained* by social conditions rather than just individual factors.

Answer 125

- Durkehim drew on tis idea to expalin how suicide rtes spread within a society. - people may imitate others' suicides, especially in times of crisis, leading to clusters or waves of suicides - but not due to imitation, due to social factors

Answer 126

it refers to a situation where a suicide in a particular social group or region can lead to a series of similar suicides as people in the group imitate the initial act. --> hook, suicide, hospital.

Answer 127

durheim argued that social intergration (how connected individuals are to their communities) is a key factor in suicide rates. - Egoism = low integration, such as in isolated individuals or communities, increases suicide rates. - Altruism = over integration, where individuals are overly bound by social ties or obligations, can also lead to suicide, especially in religious or military contexts

Answer 128

occurs when individuals feel too ISOLATED from society, such as those with weak family ties, lack of social support, or are disconnected from social instructions like religion

Answer 129

occurs when individuals feel to STRONGLY INTERGRATED into a society, such as in the case of soldiers or religious martyrs who sacrifice themselves for a greater cause.

Answer 130

society performs a regulatory function for idnividuals, providing balance between personal desires in social needs

Answer 131

anomie = lack of regulation or normlessness in a society that can lead to high rates of suicide. - anomie arises when social norms break down, leading individuals to feel lost and disconnectef from society fatalism = occurs when individuals experience too much regulation, and their actions are severely restricted - leading to despair and suicide

Answer 132

Marx's view of society as driven purely by economic relations is overly simplistic -- durkheim argued that social facts (like morality, law, and religion) cannot be reduced to ideology or economic relations; they must be understood in their own right

Answer 133

marx = error durkheim = truth

Answer 134

methodica, empircal appraoch to uncover the truth behind social phenomena

Answer 135

- durkheims dialectical approach emphasizes the interaction between the individual and society Marx focused on class struggle and economic relations, durkheim saw social facts and individual actions as interdependent and in constant interaction Durkhiems view is dialectical because he believed that social facts shape individuals, but individuals also influence and change society through their interactions.

Exam 2 - Chapters 5,6,8,9 Flashcards

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