Exam 1 Flashcards
(183 cards)
1
Q
Who is included in the classical Triumvirate?
A
Marx, Weber, Durkheim
2
Q
Why were Marx, Weber, and Durkheim included?
A
they ananalyzed and interpreted the dramatic social transformations durring the transition to modernity
AND their work estabished the foundation for sociological inquiriy
3
Q
What are the key contributions and focus of marx (broadly)
A
commodification and class conflict..
he analyzed the 19th century commodity production and its effecdts on human existence.
4
Q
What was the key focus of Durkheim + his contirbutions broadly…
SSS
A
emphasized social solidarity and observed how specilization changed interpersonal relationships.
wanted to objectively observe social bonds and attatchments
5
Q
What were the key contributions (broadly) of Weber?
A
studied ratinalization and the rise of bureacracy
highlighted the inlfuence of values on individual motivation
6
Q
What is the definition of a cannon?
A
A privledged set of texts and authors that represents a discipline
7
Q
when was the sociological cannon established?
A
1970s
8
Q
A cannon of often reflects the perspectives of ______________
A
the dominant culture
(aka white, male, ango-saxon)
9
Q
The sociological cannon has excluded theories from ________ and _________ disciplines
A
feminist and critical race theorists
10
Q
Who are some early theorists that should have been included in the Cannon?
A
1) Marry Wollstonecraft
2) Herriet Martineau
3) Charlot Gilman
11
Q
What did Mary Wollstonecraft study?
A
shew as a feminist theorist focused on gender and education
12
Q
What did Harriet Martineau study?
A
she critiqued contraditions in American ideals of freedom and democracy
13
Q
what did Charlotte Gilman study?
A
applied evolutionary theory to analyze patriarchal strategies
14
Q
Define: Social Theory
A
the theorizing about collective human life, though not explicitly society
- philosophers, religious scholars, and political theories dating back to ancient Greece.
15
Q
Define Sociological Theory
A
Investigates society and the social scientifically as objective realities
(aka outside of the individual)
emerged in the 19th century
16
Q
How do social theory and sociological theory differ?
A
social theory = is a broad term and includes pre-sociolgoical thinkers like Plato and Aristotle.
sociological theory = developed methods to conceptualize society as a distinct object of study
e.g., Durkheirm used statistics to emprically study social structures and solidarity
17
Q
Before what date, was there no sociology
A
1830
18
Q
How did early sociologist conceptualize society?
A
as separate from the individual..
socially constructed..
but treated as its own entity.
19
Q
What are some early examples of sociological theorizing (particularly philosophical theorizing about the social)
A
- Plato
- Aristotle
- Fragments from the Islamic World..
20
Q
Is sociology eurocentric? why?
A
Socioligcal theory as a discipline emerged in 19th century Europe, heavily influenced by European ideals
created by Europeans, about European issues. so yes, it is eurocentric
21
Q
When was the long 19th century?
what happened during this time?
A
1750 - 1920
the rise of sociology during industrial and political transformations
but sociology not until 1830
22
Q
What is the significance of the years 600BCE - 1749CE?
A
Early philosophical debates on politics and society
23
Q
Why do we focus on European and American classical theorizing?
A
- euroean events like the french and industrial revolutions led to the creation of sociology
- Ethical concerns arise when using these theories to generalize across all societies
24
Q
Which theorist created or coined the term sociology?
A
Auguste Comte
25
True or false? Marx, Weber and Durkheim ahve always been recognized as the founders of sociology
false
26
true or false? the cannonization of the classical triumvirate was a highly selective process, but recent attempts to create a more inclusive cannon are not all selective?
false
27
Who is often recongized as the first philosopher?
Thales
28
who was Influenced by Darwin’s evolutionary theory, emphasized the "social organism" concept where societies evolve and adapt.
Herbert Spencer
29
who were 3 Early contributors from the Scottish Enlightenment who discussed social philosophy and class structure.
Adam Ferguson, David Hume, and John Millar
30
Who was Early British Sociology dominated by?
Spencer's evolutionary ideas
31
Who was early French Sociology dominated by?
Drukheim and Comte
- foundations of social order
32
Who was early German sociology dominated by?
Marx and Weber
- rationality and conflict
33
Define social organism
the idea that socieites function like living organisms with interconnected parts
34
define structural functionalism
durkheims theory that social strcutres maintain societal stability
35
define conflict theory
marx = society is characterized by conflict over resources and power
36
define rationalization
webers concept describing the process by which social actions become based on efficiency and rules rather than tradition
37
Who emphasized social cohesioin and the role of norms and institutions in maintaining social stability?
Durkheim
38
What is a concept / term that refers to a shift toward efficiency, predictability, and rule based organization in society (Weber)
rationalization
39
How did the Scotish Enlightnement influence early sociology?
Adam ferguson and David hume laid ealry groundwork by discussing social philosophy and class structure
40
What is a theory that views social structures as interconnected parts that work together to maintain societal stability?
Structural functionalism
41
What was the great transformation?
refers to the profound social, economic and political changes that occurred during the transition from *fudalism to industrial capitalism*
- involved the rise of urbanization, the development of capitalist economies and the restricting of social institutions
o Shift from feudalism to industrial capitalism.
o Mass migration from rural to urban areas.
o Emergence of factory-based wage labor.
o Decline of customary bonds like serfdom.
o Secularization of society.
42
When* whas the great transformation?
1750 - 1920
43
What are *push factors* in towns and city development?
factors that drove people away from rural areas such as lack of land, poverty, and limited job opportunities
44
what are *pull factors* in town and city development?
factors that attracted people to urban areas, including employment opportunities in factories, access to services, and the chance for social mobility
45
What was the Feudal strucutre in traditional european society?
Society was divided into distinct classes
lords
vassals
knights
serfs
46
How was economic and social life organized in traditional eurpoean society under feudalism?
organized around manorial estates.
structured by oaths, duties, and obligations
strong influence of religion, tradition, and custom
47
What was the production like in feudal society?
agricultural and based on subsistence farming
48
How were obligations structured in feudal society?
bonds between lords and vassals involving mutual duties of protection and service
serfs cultivated land for lords in exchange for protection
49
What did the rise of towns mean for serfs?
Towns offered serfs the chance to escape feudal obligations, gain freedom, and participate in a cash-based economy
happened after enclosure (the privatization of communal lands) aka displacement.
50
what did the rise of towns mean for production?
production shifted from subsitence farming to market based production
51
Who lived in towns?
merchants, artisans, former serfts
52
what were the implications for social interactions (towns)
social interactions became more diverse and less constrained by rigid feudal hierarchies
53
What was the *guild system*
* Professional associations that regulated production, pricing, and quality.
* Organized into apprentices, journeymen, and guildmasters.
* Provided credit and social support.
* medieval
54
What was the putting-out system?
an early form of industrial production where merchants provided raw materials to rural households, who processed them and returned finished goods
* Cottage-based production.
* Workers produced goods at home, at their own pace.
* Competed with guild-based production.
55
What changes did town life bring?
- economic specialization
- a cash economy
- social mobility and increased interactions
- decline of feudal obligations
56
Was money created after the collapse of feudalism?
No.
Money existed in various forms long before feudalism, including clay tokens, silver rings, and coins.
57
Was English money a singular currency?
No..
Early English money was chaotic, with different coins of varying weights and values.
58
Were there problems with money in early English towns?
Yes.
* Difficulty in establishing equivalences for trade.
* Regional currencies made transactions complex.
* Goldsmith receipts eventually served as a form of early banking.
59
Define: Urbanism
the stuyd of the characteristics and social structures of urban areas
60
define: industrialization
a system characterized by the large scale production of goods using machenry
61
define: democratization
the process of making political systems more accessible and representative of the people
62
What is modernity
Modernity refers to the social, cultural, and economic transformations that emerged in the wake of the Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution.
These transformations involve the development of capitalist economies, the rise of individualism, and the decline of traditional social structures.
63
define: capitalism
an economic system baed on the private ownership and pursuit of profit
64
define: classical social theorizing
the study of society through foundational theories developed by figures like marx, weber, and durkeim
65
define: enclosure
the process of privatizing common lands, with displaced peasant farmers and contributed to urban migration
66
What characterized feudal society?
- agricultural produciton
- hierchical social structures
- customicary obligations between lords and serfs
67
Democratization in France:
Individualism and collectivism 1789:
France shifted away from rank-based traditional society to one based on individual rights.
some speculated the need of *general will* - the good of the collective - because everyone had lost what bound them together.
68
What was france like in 1780?
*famine and economic crisis* due to crop failures
high taxes for peasants
growing unrests.
69
Say stuff about how the Estates General contributed to the Revolution.
three estates: Clergy, nobility, and commoners
they formed the *national assembly* after the *tenis court oath*
inspired by the *declaration of independence*
70
What did the Natinoal assembly + Tennis court want?
- to limit the monarchys power
- end feudal privledges
- establish a constiutional monarchy
- based on enlightenment ideals of liberty and equality
(tennis court vowed not to disband until they drafted a new constitution for france)
- abolish privilege for nobility and clergy
- create a constitution to protect the rights of citizens
- political representation for the third estate
71
Who developed the term *the general will*
JJ Rousseau
- enlightenment idea
- collective interest of the people
72
What resulted from the democratization of France? (in terms of social categories)
the emergence of a new social category defined by rights and participation in government
73
What were the social conditions of urban life?
* Overcrowding, disease, and poverty.
* Lack of sanitation and clean water.
* Shift from rural subsistence living to urban wage labor.
74
Factory labour _______ work hours and __________ production
regulated work hours and routinized production
75
How was factory labour dangerous?
child labour.
e.g., silk manufactorers used child workers for intricate tasks...
eventually, parliamentary interventions limited child labour and improved safety..
76
What event led to the rise of individualism?
shifting from rural to urban living
77
The shift to urban life in 18th-century England was characterized by:
* a) Disease, Crime, and Poverty
* b) Factory Wage Labour
* c) Democratization
* d) All of the Above
d) All of the Above
78
When was the Great Transformation?
* a) 1550-1750
* b) 1700-1900
* c) 1750-1920
* d) 1780-1830
c) 1750-1920
79
Enclosure happened in a short period of time, 1780-1850.
True or False?
True
80
What are the key characteristics of modernity?
- Economic Transformation: Industrialization and the rise of capitalism.
- Cultural Shifts: A move toward secularism and rationality.
- Political Changes: The rise of nation-states and democratic governance.
- Individualism: A focus on personal freedom and identity.
- Technological Advancements: Innovations that drastically altered communication, production, and daily life.
81
What were the Enlightenment's contributions to modern social theory?
The Enlightenment (1648-1789) was characterized by:
- Emphasis on reason and empirical knowledge.
- Rejection of traditional religious authority.
- Advocacy for individual rights and freedoms.
- Development of the scientific method.
82
How did early sociologists respond to modernity?
: Early sociologists sought to understand the dramatic transformations brought about by modernity:
-Karl Marx: Focused on the conflict between the bourgeoisie and proletariat in a capitalist society.
-Emile Durkheim: Examined how social bonds and solidarity changed in a more differentiated society.
-Max Weber: Analyzed the process of rationalization and its impact on social life.
83
What role did the French and Industrial Revolutions play in shaping modern social theory?
o The French Revolution (1789) challenged traditional political and social hierarchies, advocating for equality and democracy.
o The Industrial Revolution (1750-1850) transformed economies and social structures, leading to urbanization, the rise of factories, and significant changes in family and work life.
84
Who were some pre-sociological thinkers that influenced sociology?
o Plato: Developed ideas about the "ideal society." / ideal state ruled by philosopher kings
o Aristotle: Examined politics and the role of community. / community and governance
o Thomas Hobbes: Theorized the social contract to escape the brutish state of nature. / chaotic and violent - need soverign ruler
o Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Emphasized the natural goodness of humans and the corrupting influence of society. // society based on collective will rather than coercion
85
What is the social contract, and how did Hobbes and Rousseau differ in their views?
The social contract is an agreement among individuals to form a society:
o Thomas Hobbes: Believed individuals surrender their rights to a sovereign authority to escape the violent *"state of nature."*
o Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Argued that individuals come together to form a collective *"general will"* for mutual benefit.
86
What were the major transformations of modernity?
* Political: The shift from monarchies to democratic governance.
* Economic: The rise of capitalism and industrial production.
* Social: Decline of feudal systems and emergence of class structures.
* Cultural: Move from religious explanations to secular and rational understandings of the world.
87
What was the Enlightenment's impact on modernity?
* Rejected the divine right of kings.
* Introduced scientific thinking and empirical observation.
* Shifted focus to individual rights and freedoms.
88
What is a theory of knowledge?
refers to framework or systems that explain how we acquire, understand and validate knowledge.. thesea re not about specific facts, but about assumptions regatding the nature and process of knowledge aquisition
89
What is epistemology
epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies te nature, sources and limits of knowledge
90
What is idealism?
a theory of knowledge that says that the physical world depends on the huyman midn and perceptions... reality does not exist independtly of how humans percive and make sense of it.
91
what is empiricism?
a theory of knowledge that says all knowledge is based on sensory experience (seeing, tasting, hearing). Truth exists in the physical world and is discovered through careful observation and experimentation
92
What is rationalism?
rationalism is a form of idealism
syas that knowledge and truth are derived from pure thnking and deductive reasoning
(NOT sensory experiences [e.g., Rene Descartes "I think therefore I am" - idealism])
93
What is materialism
a form of empiricism
assets that everything real is composed of physical matter.
this includes unseen forces
(like atoms), rewalitiy can be fully explained by material processes
94
What is sociological realism?
views soicety as a "thing" that exists independly of individuals. Society is conceptualized as an objective reality that exerts influence over people
95
What is the Enlightenment?
The Englightnement (1648 - 1789)
was a period of intellectual development characterized by a shift towards empirical knowledge, reason, and individual freedom..
moving away from religious dogma and traditional societal constraints.
96
What themes characterized the enlightenment?
- rationality and free thought
- empirical observation
- secularism (minimizing religious influence)
- individual liberty and social contracts
- progress and contorl over society through science and reason
97
What were the main ideas of Thomas Hobbes?
- society is created thorugh a *social contract* where individuals surrender some freedoms to ensure *self preservation*
- humans are naturally driven by appetite (power) and aversion (preservation), which leads to conflict
- without social contracts, ife would be *"solidary, poor, nastry, brutish, and short"*
98
Who quoted "life would be solitary, poor, nastry, brutish, and short"?
thomas hobbes
99
Who conceptualized the idea of "state of nature" and what does it mean?
Jean-Jaques Rousseau
humans are peaceful and driven by basic survival needs
100
For JJ Rousseau, what marked the begining of societal conflict?
Private property
101
What does JJ Rouseau think that Society creates
inequality, conflict, and insecurity
102
What is the "general will"
who conceptualized it?
JJ Rouseau
individuals surrender their rights for the collective good
103
What category of contract was theorized by both Thomas Hobbes and JJ Rousseau?
Social contract theories
104
What was the conservative reaction?
the response tot he failures of the French revolution... which lead to chaos and violence instead of progress..
emphasized the importance of traditional institutions such as family and religion.
Influential thinkers like Burke and de Maistre rejected the Enlightenments focus on individual freedom
105
Edmund Burke, Joseph de Maistre, and Louis de Bonald all were apart of the _______________
conservative reaction
106
What were the basic ideas of Edmund Burke?
beleived society is an *organic institution* formed over time, not a contractual relationship among individuals
e.g., cant just scrap everything and build from the ground up
107
What wre the basic ideas of Joseph de Maistre?
he advoated for a return to monarchical order, arguing that the french revolution undermined moral and social stability
108
What were the basic ideas of Louis de Bonald?
he saw society as held together by enduring religious and moral principles that revolutions failed to respect
(aka need tradition to bring people together)
109
The rise of Sociology::
what are the basic ideas of Claude-Henri de Saint Simon?
- society progresses thorugh stages, moving towards a *scientific society*
- believed that religion once provided societal cohesion, but must be replaced by *science and rationalitiy* in the modern era
- saw society as a *natural organism* that evolves oranicallly
110
Who developed the "law of three stages"?
Auguste Comte
111
What is the Law of three stages?
1. Theological stage - society explained through religious belief
2. Metaphysical stage: society explained thorugh philosophical reasoning
3. Positivist sage: society understood through scientific observation and facts.
112
Who sought to create a positive science of society (sociology) to ensure *order and progress*
Comte
113
Where did knowledge systems begin to develop?
from Greek-Roman antiquity throught the Enlightenment
114
What two theories of knowledge represent opposing ends of the spectrum?
idealism and empiricism
115
What was Plato's Theory of Forms?
reality is a reflection of a perfect, ideal form
--> aka there is a heaven / god somewhere that is perfect.
116
Who was the father of rationalism?
Rene Descartes
he believed in using *deductive logic* to arrive at certain truths..
aka I think therefore i am
117
Who was the father of empiricism?
Francis Bacon
he emphasized the importance of sensory experience and experimentation
118
What era shifted Europe from divine revelation to scientific reasoning?
the enlightenment
119
What era emphasized individual liberty, freedom, and reason as guiding principles?
the enlightenment
120
Which era led to challanges against traditional religious authority?
the enlightenment
121
On the topic of the state of nature:
Who thought it was competitive and violent?
who thought it was peaceful and self sufficient?
Hobbes = violent
Rousseau = peaceful
122
on human impulses:
who thought that human nature was to seek power, and self preservation
who thought that human nature surrounded survival and self security
Hobbes = Power
Rousseau = security
123
On the topic of social contract;
who thought that it was rational to surrender freedom for survival?
who thought that surrender was a collective effort for general prosperity ?
Hobbes = rational / survival
Rousseau = Collective / prosperity
124
On the topic of society's origin...
who thought that society was artificial but necessary?
who thought that society was the source of inequality and conlfict?
Hobbes = artificial
Rousseau = inequality
125
Who developed the first framework for scientific sociology, and emphasized order and progress through his law of ________
Comte
law of three stages
126
What was the context of Germany in the early 19th century?
transitioning from a feudal society bound by shared customs and traditions to a modern industrial society
127
What was the holy roman empire?
- dissolved in 1806
fragmented territories with prussia and Austria as key power centers.
128
Was Germany affected by the french occupation?
= introduced social and political reforms (limited church power, creating assemblies, extending minority rights, accelerating the movement towards modernity)
Yess - there was alot of theorizing about this in Germany.
129
The rise of individualism, secularization and concerns over social cohesion prompted thinkers like ___________ to address questions of societal unity and modernity
Hegel
130
Who attempted to reconcile opposing philosophical positions of *rationalism* (knowledge from reason( and *empiricism* (knowledge from sensory experience*)?
Kant
131
What was Kants theory that asserted knowledge begins with experience, but is structured by mental categories?
transcendental idealism
132
What was Kant's
A Priori knowledge
knowledge independent of experience
(e.g., time and space)
because a prior means you know it before
133
What is Kant's A posteriori knowledge?
knowledge derived from experiences (e.g., seeing rain clouds and then predicting rain)
because posterior means after.
and you know these things after you already have knowledge.
134
What is Kants Analytical Judgemnet?
The predicate is contained within the subject
(A triangle has three sides)
= three sides is part of the definition of a triangle.
135
Are analytic judgements ( "the tall man", "the brown dog") a priori, or a posteriori?
they are a priori!
It is known to be true through reason alone.
(just like gravity, time, space).
136
What is a synthetic judgement?
the predicate adds information and is not contained in the subject.
e.g., The university is great, the boy is stinky.
requires knowledge of what stinky or great is before.
137
Are synthetic judgements A priori or A posteriori?
They are A posteriori,
because they depend on experience for their truth..
AKA you would have had to know what a great university is for you to under stand that the university is great.
138
What are Synthetic A Priori Judgements?
One of Kant's key conributions..
combines the two theories basically.
it means that statements can be true, but not derived solely from experience. (e.g., every event has a cause)
there are truths we can know about the world, and we don't need experience to grasp them, but they still add something substantive to our knowledge.
139
According to Kant, what is an example of a mental concept / category?
time and space
140
What did Kant think that the importance of mental concepts and categories were?
categories like time and space are innate and structure all of human experience...
these categories are essential for making sense out of the chaotic sensory world.
141
According to Kant, what are the two fundamental ordering principles of human experience?
time and space
142
How do the spatial and temporal (time and space) shape the dimensions of the mind - Kant?
they shape how we percieve objects and events.
143
What is the phenomenal world according to Kant?
the world as we percieve it, filtered through time and space
144
what is the noumenal world, according to Kant?
The world as it truly is, beyond human perception
145
What does "A Thing-in-itself" mean - kant
it refers to the noumenal reality that exists independently of our perception
we can never fully know a "thing-in-itself" because our knowledge is always mediated by mental categories
146
What was the primary way that Georg Hegel disagreed with Kant?
- Hegel rejected Kants idea that mental categories are fixed and ahistorical
- he argued that these categories develop historically through out human interaction
e.g., My brain is not the same as aristotles brain because social / historical factors that influence mental categories.
147
Why did Hegel think that history what not ahistorical... what did he think instead?
he thought that *reason and consciousness* evolve through history
he thought that history is a dialectical process where contradictions are resolved leading to higher levels of self awareness
148
How did Hegel think that self-awareness and self-understanding are developed?
they are achieved when individuals recognize their social and historical context
essential for true freedom and authenticity
149
What was Hegels concept of unreflexive universality?
- in traditional socieites individuals feel authentic but lack self-reflection
- people are tightly bound to their community without question of their roles or identity
150
How did Hegel think an individual could achieve an authentic life?
achieved thorugh self awareness and understanding of social conditions
151
what is an inauthentic life according to Hegel?
lived without relfection, bound by external identities.
152
What is freedom according to Hegel?
the ability to understand and actualize ones true nature
I think this means to become self reflective / authentic
153
What is egoism and what does it lead to, according to Hegel?
a focus on self interst, leads to alienation..
154
what is universal altruism? - hegel
a sense of collective responsibility and interconnectedness
155
What did Hegel see as being central to human development?
self-consciousness
Hegel was a hippie
156
How did Hegel think that self consicousness was achieved?
through social interactions and historical processes.
157
What is the development of the human spirit driven by?
contraditions and resolutions
it leads to greater self awareness and freedom
158
Hegel's dialectics.
What is a thesis (affirmation)
an existing idea or social order
159
Hegel's dialectics
what is antithesis / negation?
a challance or contradiction
160
hegels dialectics:
what is synthesis / negation of the negation?
A resolution that forms a new thesis
161
Does history progress through the dialectical process?
yes ma'am
162
Is Hegel an idealist?
Yes
but his idealism is *historical and soicla*
163
Why is hegels idealism specifically hisorical and social?
because he emphasized the development of consciousness through history rather than abstract ideas
164
Who rejected Hegel's idealism?
Marx
thought it was too focused on consciousness and ideas and ignored the material conditions which shape consciousness
165
Marx was a ___________
materialist
166
Who were the old hegelians?
conservative..
they beleived history had reached its culmination in the prussian state.
liked god.
167
Who were the young hegelians?
Radical
beleived history was still evolving and criticized religion and the state
168
Marx aimed to settle accoutns with the old and young hegelians...
what was his critique?
critiqued both groups for remaining too focuesed on ideas and consciousness
he emphasized the need to focus on material conditions and economic realities.
169
What was Marx's "First Historical Act"?
the first historical act is *economic* = the need to satisfy basic material needs (food, shelter, clothing)
this act forms the basis of all social organization
170
What was Ludwig Feurbach's essence of Christianity?
- Feuerbach argued that humans create God by projecting their best qualities
- Religion is a human creation, not a divine imposition
171
What was Marx's critique / response to Feuerbach's essence of Christianity?
- Marx agreed, but criticized Feuerbach for remaining idealist
- Marx saw religion a a *response to material alienation*, where people used it as a coping mechanism for human suffering
172
How did Hegel's notion of *reason* differ from Kant?
For Kant: Reason is the mental faculty that imposes order on existence
for Hegel: Reason develops historically and socially, leading to greater self awareness
173
How did Feurbach influence Marx's critique of religion?
- Feurbach arguedthat humans created god by projecting their best qualities
- Marx agreed, but asserted that religion is a *coping mechanism* for material suffering..
174
What is the difference between Hegels idealism and Marx's materialism?
Hegel's idealism = history is driven by the devleopment of consciousness and ideas
Marx's Materialism = History is driven by material conditions and economic structures
175
Who thought that material conditions drive reality?
Marx
176
What was Hegel's term (and to some extent marx's term) for disconnection from ones true self?
alienation
177
Who said that religion is opium as it numbs people to material suffering?
marx
178
What was hegel's concept of collective responsibility?
universal alturism
179
What is Estrangement?
Disconnection from authentic existence
hegel - also same as alienation
180
What are kants terms for percieved vs. true reality?
phenomenal / noumenal world
181
What is Kants term for knowledge structured by mental categories?
Transcendantal idealism
182
Who thought that socieity progressed in distinct stages?
st. simone
came before comte
thought we were moving from feudal society to scientific reason
183
