exam 2 review Flashcards
(40 cards)
What are the differences between episodic and semantic memory? What kinds of memory does each refer to?
Episodic memory stores personal experiences tied to time and place, while semantic memory stores general knowledge and facts about the world.
List three reasons why episodic memory and semantic memory are considered separate neurocognitive systems.
- Different brain regions: Episodic → right prefrontal cortex; Semantic → left prefrontal cortex. 2. People perform differently on memory tasks. 3. Amnesia can impair one but not the other.
What is meant by the term levels of processing? Describe an experiment that supports it.
Deeper, meaning-based processing improves memory. Craik & Lockhart (1972) showed that words processed for meaning were recalled better than those processed for appearance or sound.
What is incidental learning? How does it differ from intentional learning?
Incidental learning occurs without trying to memorize; intentional learning involves active effort with expectation of a memory test.
What is survival processing? What experiment was done to demonstrate it?
Survival processing means rating words for survival relevance. Nairne et al. (2007) asked participants to rate a list of words based on their usefulness for survival in a grassland scenario.
Results showed that words rated for survival relevance were remembered better than words processed in other contexts (e.g., moving to a new home).
What is the generation effect? How does it improve memory?
The generation effect is the finding that memory is better for information that a person generates themselves (e.g., solving a word or creating a connection) rather than information they simply read or receive passively.
What is the von Restorff effect? How is it linked to distinctiveness?
The von Restorff effect is the tendency to remember an item that stands out from a list of similar items.
It is linked to distinctiveness because unique or unusual items attract more attention during encoding, making them more memorable than less distinctive items.
What is the theoretical difference between availability and accessibility?
Availability is all stored information; accessibility is the portion of that information we can retrieve at a given time.
What is encoding specificity? Describe an experiment that supports it.
Memory retrieval is best when conditions match encoding. Godden & Baddeley (1975) found divers recalled better when tested in the same environment they learned in.
What is retrieval-induced inhibition? How has it been tested in experiments?
Participants study category-item pairs (e.g., Fruit–Apple, Fruit–Orange).
They practice recalling only some items (e.g., Apple).
Later, when tested, recall for the unpracticed but related items (e.g., Orange) is impaired compared to unrelated items.
What is semantic memory? How does it differ from episodic memory and lexical memory?
Semantic memory stores general knowledge and facts; episodic memory stores personal experiences; lexical memory stores word forms and meanings used in language.
What is meant by the term spreading activation? How do experiments on semantic priming support the idea of spreading activation?
Spreading activation refers to how activation of one concept in memory spreads to related concepts. Semantic priming experiments show faster recognition of related words (e.g., doctor–nurse), supporting this idea.
What is meant by the term family resemblance for categories? How does it relate to the idea that categories have fuzzy boundaries?
Family resemblance refers to members of a category sharing overlapping features without all having one defining feature. This supports the idea that categories have fuzzy, not fixed, boundaries.
What are the differences among prototype theory, exemplar theory, and feature comparison theory?
Prototype Theory: We form a mental average (prototype) of a category based on typical features. New items are compared to this prototype to decide category membership. It explains typicality effects (e.g., a robin is a more typical bird than a penguin).
Exemplar Theory: We store many specific examples (exemplars) of category members in memory. When we encounter a new item, we compare it to all stored exemplars to determine similarity. This allows more flexibility and handles atypical cases well.
Feature Comparison Theory: Concepts are stored as feature lists, including defining and characteristic features. Categorization involves a two-stage comparison: first, overall similarity; then, a check for defining features if needed. Explains differences in reaction time when classifying items.
What were the results of Brewer and Treyens’s classic experiment on students’ memory for a waiting room? What do these results tell us about schemas?
Participants recalled schema-consistent objects (e.g., books) even if they weren’t present. This shows that schemas can influence and distort memory recall.
What is the difference between the single-store and dual-store view of a bilingual’s lexical memory? Which view do the data on cross-language priming support?
Single-store theory suggests a shared lexicon across languages; dual-store theory suggests separate lexicons. Cross-language priming supports the single-store view by showing shared semantic access.
When does relying on schemas lead to errors in retrieval from memory? Can you give an example of this from the discussion of music and memory?
Schemas can cause false memories by filling in expected details. In music, people may misremember hearing a song that fits the genre schema but wasn’t actually played.
What are the theoretical differences between a visual memory system that uses analog representation and one that uses propositional representation?
Analog Representation: Mental images are stored like pictures—they preserve spatial relationships and visual details. For example, imagining a map where locations are in the same layout as in real life.
Propositional Representation: Information is stored in a language-like, abstract form—using symbols and logic rather than images. It represents concepts and relationships (e.g., “The cat is under the table”) without forming a visual image.
Describe the Shepard-Metzler experiment. What was their hypothesis? How was the experiment conducted? What results did they get? And how were these results interpreted?
They hypothesized that mental rotation takes time proportional to the angle of rotation. Participants compared 3D shapes at various angles. Reaction times increased with rotation angle, suggesting analog imagery.
What is the difference between a lemma and a lexeme? How do speech errors support this conceptual difference?
A lemma is the abstract representation of a word—it includes its meaning and syntactic properties (like part of speech), but not its exact sound or spelling.
A lexeme is the word’s actual form, including its phonology and morphology (e.g., how it’s pronounced or conjugated).
💬 Speech errors support this distinction: for example, someone might say “He runned” instead of “He ran”—they selected the correct lemma (run as a verb) but applied the wrong lexeme form, showing these two components are processed separately in the mind.
What are the three levels of Conway’s theory of autobiographical memory representation? How do the levels interact?
The three levels are lifetime periods, general events, and event-specific knowledge. They interact hierarchically: broad lifetime periods organize general events, which contain detailed event-specific memories.
What does Conway mean by an extended event? How does it differ from an episodic memory?
An extended event lasts over hours or days (e.g., a vacation), while an episodic memory is a brief, specific event with a clear time and place (e.g., arriving at the hotel).
What is childhood amnesia? What are the four explanations for it? Which explanation works best?
Childhood amnesia is the lack of memories from early childhood (before age 3-4). Explanations: brain immaturity, lack of language, undeveloped self-concept, repression. The language and self-concept theories are especially supported.
What is a flashbulb memory? How do these memories differ from ordinary memories? How are they similar to ordinary memories?
Flashbulb memories are vivid, detailed memories of learning about a shocking event. They feel special and are recalled with confidence, but are not more accurate than ordinary memories.
