final terms Flashcards

Question

What are word exchange errors and sound substitution eroors?

Answer 1

Word-exchange errors (substituting a word with similar meaning) occur at the lemma level. Sound-substitution errors (retrieving a similar sound structure) occur at the lexeme level after lemma retrieval

Answer 2

Skill learning progresses through stages: 1. Cognitive Stage: Performance based on stated rules. 2. Associative Stage: Actions become stereotyped. 3. Autonomous Stage: Actions seem automatic.

Answer 3

* AM has a hierarchical structure. The interacting levels include: ◦ Event-specific memories: The episodic memories accumulated over a lifetime, the fundamental units of conscious AM. Can be brief or extended. ◦ General events: Combined, averaged, and cumulative memories of highly similar events (e.g., attending elementary school, riding a campus bus). ◦ Life-time periods: Idiosyncratic, personal ways of organizing the autobiographical past (e.g., "Before I came to college", "Before Covid").

Answer 4

A monitoring system that bridges AM and working memory. It includes goals and self-images. Has two functions: ensuring coherence (memories are consistent with the working self) and correspondence (retrieved memory matches the actual past event)

Answer 5

Showed children (2-4 years old) an "incredible shrinking machine" demonstration. ◦ A year later, children only remembered objects for which they had the vocabulary when they witnessed the event, supporting the language development view. ◦ Further studies showed children who couldn't describe the event could still recognize the toys or show procedural memory of using the machine, suggesting these memory types are available earlier than verbal recall of episodic events

Answer 6

Flashbulb memories are highly confident personal memories of surprising events, often studied using public tragedies. Key features include: High confidence in accuracy, even for peripheral details. "Print Now" Hypothesis (Brown & Kulik): Suggests a unique mechanism for flashbulb memories. Ordinary Mechanism Approach: Flashbulb memories are seen as typical memories of emotionally charged events. Accuracy vs. Confidence: Studies show flashbulb memories are not more accurate than ordinary memories, but confidence and vividness ratings are higher. Factors influencing formation/accuracy: Unexpectedness, proximity, personal relevance, and event valence.

Answer 7

Definition: A spike in recalled memories corresponding to late adolescence to early adulthood, roughly 16 to 25 years old. * Occurrence: Often observed when older adults are asked to recall memories using the cue-word technique. * Potential Reasons: ◦ Memory-fluency: This period contains many unique and novel "first experiences". ◦ Neurological views: Optimal maturation of brain memory mechanisms before age-related decline. ◦ Socio-cultural views: Associated with identity-formation and significant life changes. ◦ Positivity bias: More positive than negative memories are often retrieved from this period

Answer 8

Observer Memories: Recalling an event from the vantage point of an outside observer, seeing yourself as an actor. * Field Memories: Recalling an event from your own perspective, seeing through your own eyes. More associated with emotion Disputed Memories: Falsely remembering someone else's memory as one's own, more common among twins

Answer 9

* Source Monitoring: The process of determining the origin of information that comes to mind. This involves deciding whether a memory is from a real event or something imagined, thought, or heard from someone else. * Reality Monitoring: A type of source monitoring that involves distinguishing between memories for externally generated events (perceived) and internally generated events (imagined, thought)

Answer 10

* A laboratory paradigm used to create false memories. * Participants study lists of words that are all strongly associated with a single, unpresented word (the "critical lure"). * At test, participants are likely to recall or recognize the critical lure as having been on the list, even though it wasn't. This is known as a critical intrusion or false memory. * Explanations for DRM results: ◦ Contextual Associations: Activation from the studied words spreads to the critical lure, and the participant fails to distinguish the source of this activation (internal association vs. external presentation). ◦ Fuzzy Trace Theory: Suggests that during encoding, we store both verbatim details and the "gist" or general meaning. Over time, verbatim details are lost, but the gist remains. In the DRM task, the gist of the list strongly points to the critical lure, leading to false memory.

Answer 11

Definition: Prospective memory is memory for things we need to do in the future. It is described as the "flip side" of episodic memory. * Importance: PM is critical for everyday life, including tasks like showing up for exams, remembering legal requirements or bills, taking medicine, and distinguishing between past recurring events and future ones. It is particularly important for schoolchildren.

Answer 12

Stages: Typical PM tasks involve four stages: encoding, retention, retrieval (cueing), and execution Event-based prospective memory: When we must remember to perform an action after another event or cue occurs Time-based prospective memory: When we must remember to perform an action at a specific time. Activity-based: Cued by the conclusion of an activity (e.g., turn off the oven when finished cooking)

Answer 13

Task Difficulty: Time-based PM tasks are usually considered more difficult because they place higher demand on self-initiation and require skills like time estimation and monitoring * Performance & Costs: ◦ In event-based PM tasks, events must be noticed and recognized as cues. ◦ Monitoring the environment for the cue can enhance performance but shifts attention away from the ongoing task, reducing performance on the ongoing task. ◦ The prospective–memory-cost-effect is the decrement in performance on the ongoing task associated with performing the PM task Age Differences: In laboratory studies, young adults often outperform older adults. However, in real life, older adults tend to use external aids and experience fewer PM failures, suggesting ecological validity issues in lab studies. * Factors Affecting Performance (from VR studies): ◦ Length of delay has a significant impact, with short delays leading to more success. ◦ Focal tasks (salient cues) with short delays are performed most accurately. ◦ Long delays, non-focal tasks, and time-based tasks tend to depress performance.

Answer 14

Proactive control: Actively thinking about the to-be-remembered task. This is hard to maintain and subject to interference; attention and the central executive are critical. fMRI studies show PFC activation when maintaining a future intention. Different brain areas might maintain the "what" and the "when" of the intention retroactive control: occurs when the individual waits until the prospective memory cue occurs and only then begins the process of initiating the task. Proactive control is subject to interference from competing tasks. That is, the more things a person is doing, the harder it will be to continually remind themselves to look for the prospective memory cues. Thus, for example, if one is balancing multiple tasks while also monitoring for the prospective memory cue, the more tasks one has to balance the more errors one will make because of the difficulty in continual monitoring of that cue (Strickland et al., 2018; Strickland et al., 2023). In contrast, reactive control will only be affected by the salience of the prospective memory task.

Answer 15

Children with ADHD show clear deficits in everyday PM performance. They recall and execute fewer real-life intentions. Everyday PM performance is linked to procrastination behavior. Inattentiveness (not impulsivity/hyperactivity) is particularly linked to these issues. * Difficulty when: The task recurs very frequently (hard to differentiate episodes), occurs at long intervals but is similar each time, or when there are multiple demands on attention or attention is impaired

Answer 16

Metamemory Definition: Understanding, monitoring, and using one's own memory processes. * Metacognition Definition: Understanding, monitoring, and using one's own cognitive processes. Metamemory is an aspect of metacognition

Answer 17

Direct access theory: Metacognitive judgments directly sense the strength of a memory (association between cue and target). ◦ Indirect or inference theory: We use what we can recall in response to a cue to make a metacognitive judgment

Answer 18

Monitoring: Our ability to reflect on and become aware of what we know and do not know. Control (in metamemory): Our ability to regulate our learning or retrieval based upon our own monitoring Metacognitive control helps guide learning by adjusting strategies based on monitoring results (e.g., increasing study time for more difficult material).

Answer 19

Semantic Memory Development: Semantic memory develops rapidly during early infancy. By 3 to 4 months, infants categorize objects (e.g., cat/dog distinction). Recognition of their own name is common by 4 months. Language aids but is not solely responsible for semantic memory development. * Procedural Memory: Procedural memory and visual recognition memory are available earlier than verbal recall of events. * Working Memory & Attention: Attentional capacity is evident early in life. Parental behaviors can help infants and toddlers learn to control attention and develop executive attention.

Answer 20

Infantile Amnesia: There is limited access to memories from early childhood. The availability of events for verbal recall depends on language acquisition and understanding narrative structure. Simcock & Hayne's "shrinking machine studies" suggested that children only recalled what they had words for at the time of the original experience. * Memory Strategies: Memory improves as children learn and use strategic behaviors such as elaboration, rehearsal, and organization. Language and Social Interaction: Parents who discussed events with their children helped them remember more of the event, even details not specifically discussed

Answer 21

Attentional capacity is evident early in life. * Parental behaviors can assist infants and toddlers in learning to control attention, aiding in the development of executive attention. * Working memory capacity increases with age. For example, digit spans increase from about 2 items at age 2 to 6 items by age 9, approaching adult levels. This is part of overall memory efficiency improvements. * Memory efficiency also includes increased speed of learning and better retention in long-term memory as children develop. * The phonological loop, a component of working memory, develops early and supports language acquisition. Its efficiency, partly linked to articulation speed, is crucial, and impairments can lead to delays in language and reading. * Executive control abilities, such as directed forgetting, improve with age. The central executive component of working memory is vital for tasks combining processing and memory. * While working memory improves throughout childhood, it typically declines in healthy aging, associated with slower processing speed and reduced executive functions.

Answer 22

Improvements in Childhood Memory: Memory efficiency improves with age, increasing capacity, learning speed, and long-term retention. Working memory capacity increases; digit span improves by age 9. Executive control abilities improve with age, allowing better performance on tasks like directed forgetting. Phonological loop develops, aiding language acquisition. Semantic memory develops rapidly, and procedural/visual recognition memory is available early. Causes of Improvement: Brain Development: Maturation of hippocampus and pre-frontal lobes. Experience: Learning through repeated experience. Language Acquisition: Language growth provides structures for episodic memory and verbal recall. Memory Strategies: Children learn strategies like elaboration and rehearsal around age 7-8. Social Interaction: Memory conversations with parents enhance recall

Answer 23

Declines in Healthy Aging: Working memory and retrieval slow down, leading to forgetting and tip-of-the-tongue incidents. Learning speed decreases and task recall is delayed. Memory strategies may decline, affecting overall memory function. Causes of Decline: Processing Speed: Slows with age. Executive Function Decline: Decreased ability to control attention and inhibit irrelevant information. Brain Changes: Shrinkage in hippocampal volume. White matter hyperintensities in the prefrontal cortex. Slower, less efficient brain connectivity due to myelin loss.

Answer 24

These include the Hippocampus, Anterior thalamus, Mammillary bodies, Retrosplenial cortex, Parahippocampal cortex, Perirhinal cortex, Entorhinal cortex, Amygdala, Prefrontal cortex, Cingulate cortex, and parts of the parietal cortex

Answer 25

Understand Familial Alzheimer's Disease (eFAD). It is early onset, rare (2-3% of cases), typically starting in the 30s or 40s, and is caused by pathogenic mutations in three known genes: amyloid precursor protein (APP), presenilin-1 (PS1), and presenilin-2 (PS2). Having a pathogenic mutation in one of these genes guarantees the development of early onset Alzheimer disease. * Be aware of the symptoms in the late stage of Alzheimer's Disease, which include loss of language skills, failure to recognize close family members, loss of personal identity, and the necessity for round-the-clock care.

Answer 26

apoE is involved in cholesterol transport * apoE3 – most common does not confer risk * apoE2 – rare, protective * apoE4 confers risk * apoE3 and apoE4 doubles or triples risk of AD * Being homozygous, having two copies of apoE4, increases risk 12 times

Answer 27

Wernicke’s Encephalopathy: * It is caused by chronic vitamin B1 (thiamine) deficiency due to malnutrition. * The acute symptoms can include nystagmus (involuntary eye movements), ataxia (lack of voluntary coordination of muscle movements), confusion, eyelid drooping, and double vision. * It is associated with damage to parts of the brain including the diencephalon (mammillary bodies and thalamus), as well as the basal forebrain and sometimes connections to the frontal lobes. Damage to the mammillary bodies specifically is noted as a cause of severe anterograde amnesia, and Korsakoff syndrome and Wernicke's encephalopathy are caused by damage to the mammillary bodies

Answer 28

It results from vitamin B1 deficiency due to long-term chronic alcohol abuse. * Like Wernicke's, it is associated with damage to brain areas including the diencephalon (mammillary bodies and thalamus), basal forebrain, and sometimes connections to the frontal lobes. Damage to the mammillary bodies is specifically mentioned as a cause. * Symptoms of Korsakoff Syndrome (and untreated Wernicke's encephalopathy) include: ◦ Anterograde amnesia: the inability to form new memories after brain damage. ◦ Retrograde amnesia: an impaired ability to retrieve memories of events that occurred prior to brain damage. ◦ Anosognosia: a lack of awareness of memory deficits. ◦ Confabulation: described as "honest lying" The acute symptoms can include nystagmus (involuntary eye movements), ataxia (lack of voluntary coordination of muscle movements), confusion, eyelid drooping, and double vision.

Answer 29

Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) is a type of dementia characterized by damage to the frontal and/or temporal lobes of the brain. It leads to changes in personality, behavior, and language. Unlike Alzheimer's disease, which primarily affects memory, FTD causes impairments in executive function, social behavior, and language skills. There are different subtypes of FTD, including semantic dementia, which involves loss of conceptual knowledge, and frontal lobe amnesia, which can cause memory issues along with other cognitive deficits like confabulation and lack of awareness (anosognosia).

Answer 30

This condition is explicitly described as a type of memory disorder resulting from damage to specific areas within the frontal and temporal lobes. Semantic dementia involves loss of concept knowledge but leaves episodic memory intact (in early stages). It is associated with damage to the anterior frontal cortex and anterior temporal cortex. This fits the pattern of a dementia (affecting knowledge/cognition) linked to damage in the frontal and temporal regions.

Answer 31

While primarily described as an amnesia, it is associated with damage to the prefrontal regions of the brain. It is described as similar to Korsakoff's Syndrome (a dementia caused by thiamine deficiency), although with less anterograde amnesia. Symptoms can include anosognosia (lack of awareness of deficits), confabulation, and frequent false memories. While the sources differentiate this from Korsakoff Syndrome, which fits the broader definition of dementia, frontal lobe amnesia does involve cognitive deficits beyond just memory loss due to frontal damage.

Answer 32

lack of concern about their condition

Answer 33

decrease the availability of acetylcholine, a neuromodulator and neurotransmitter critical for memory

Answer 34

Experimental studies examined memory in individuals with Scz using tasks like working memory tests (e.g., touching obscure images) and episodic memory tasks (e.g., learning fictional names). ◦ Findings suggest that individuals with Scz often show deficits in these memory tasks compared to control groups. ◦ Specifically, on a working memory task, control groups performed better than medicated Scz, who performed better than unmedicated Scz. ◦ On episodic memory recall tasks, control groups performed better than Scz, although their "feeling of knowing" judgments were equally accurate. ◦ Individuals with schizotypy also performed poorly on episodic memory tasks. ◦ Interestingly, prompting Scz individuals to use an effective strategy improved their performance on a semantic encoding task to the level of control groups.

Answer 35

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is described as a developmental disorder characterized by deficits in attention, which may also include impulsivity and hyperactivity. It is typically diagnosed in early to middle childhood and is more common in males. While there is debate about how frequently ADHD continues into adulthood, it depends on where you live. Regarding memory, the sources primarily note that memory deficits in ADHD are seen primarily in working memory. Working memory involves holding and manipulating information temporarily. The sources also state that working memory training exists for ADHD, although the evidence for far transfer (benefits to other cognitive abilities) is weak. The sources also discuss prospective memory in the context of ADHD. Prospective memory is memory for things to do in the future. * Parents of children with ADHD report more "forgetting" problems in their children compared to parents of typically developing children. "Being forgetful in daily activities (e.g., doing chores, running errands)" is listed among the DSM-5 attention difficulties. * A study using a "Fishing game" with children with ADHD and a normal control group tested event-based, time-based, and activity-based prospective memory. In this specific game, the ADHD group and the control group did not differ on prospective memory performance. However, performance on the ongoing task (catching fish) was worse for the ADHD group in the event-based task, which required noticing a specific event, inhibiting fishing, and switching tasks (feeding the cat)

Answer 36

In Schizophrenia (Scz), individuals show deficits on episodic memory tasks compared to controls. When prompted to use effective strategies, their performance on semantic encoding tasks can reach the level of control groups.

Answer 37

◦ Attention Deficit Disorders (ADHD) is a developmental disorder characterized by deficits in attention, and potentially impulsivity and hyperactivity. It's typically diagnosed in early to middle childhood and is more common in males. Memory deficits in ADHD are primarily seen in working memory.

Answer 38

Impairment is most significant during acute episodes * Processing speed is slowed, influencing encoding and retrieval * Retrieval of autobiographical detail is impaired * Working memory is impaired * Some evidence of impairment during remission in tests of non-verbal memory (duplicating a visual pattern) * No difference in copying between controls and MDD-remitted; significant differences on recalled form and organizational score

Answer 39

increase the misinformation effect. Studies have shown that participants who wrote descriptions or answered questions about a staged event before receiving altered information were more likely to incorporate the false details into their final reports

Answer 40

The presence of a weapon during an event is a significant factor affecting eyewitness memory. ◦ Attention tends to be drawn to the weapon, which results in impaired memory for other details, particularly the face of the person holding the weapon. ◦ While some lab experiments might show better overall recall when violence occurs, the location of attention on the weapon is detrimental to identifying the assailant. Studies have shown a significant drop in the accuracy of identifying a person from photos when a weapon was involved in the event compared to a non-violent situation. Accuracy of identification (from 50 photos) dropped from 49% (no violence, no weapon) to 33% in violent argument & weapon condition

Answer 41

The CI is based on psychological principles, particularly encoding specificity, which suggests that memory retrieval is better when retrieval conditions match encoding conditions. ◦ Key techniques used in the CI include building rapport, encouraging the witness to mentally reinstate the physical context of the event, asking them to recall the event in different time sequences, and having them visualize the event from different perspectives

Answer 42

Verbal overshadowing can occur when giving a verbal description of a face impairs later visual recognition of that face. ◦ Conversely, verbal facilitation occurs when giving a verbal description helps later recognition. ◦ Research suggests that verbal overshadowing tends to happen with line-ups (where multiple people are presented), meaning asking for a description before a line-up might hurt recognition accuracy. ◦ Verbal facilitation tends to happen with show-ups (where only one person is presented), meaning giving a description might improve accuracy in this context. ◦ Based on these findings, the implication for eyewitness identification procedures is not to ask a witness to provide a verbal description if they will subsequently be shown a line-up

Answer 43

Coherence refers to the processes that ensure autobiographical memories retrieved are consistent with the working self. The "working self" is described as a monitoring system within Conway's theory. It bridges autobiographical memory and working memory and includes the goals and self-images that make up our view of ourselves. Therefore, coherence means that your memories align with your current understanding and representation of who you are. * Correspondence refers to the requirement that the retrieved memory match the actual event from the past. This highlights the accuracy or fidelity of the memory to the original experience

Answer 44

the frontal and parietal lobes, and specifically areas like the DLPFC and Anterior Cingulate Cortex associated with executive control, as key brain regions underlying attention and its role in guiding behavior and processing information.

Answer 45

Based on the sources, the serial position effect is a phenomenon observed in memory experiments, particularly when individuals are asked to recall a list of items. It refers to how the position of an item in the list affects the likelihood of remembering it. The effect is characterized by the serial position curve, which shows that memory is generally better for items at the beginning and the end of a list compared to items in the middle.

Answer 46

Marcia Johnson is associated with the research on reality and source monitoring, and the sources explicitly refer to a "Framework [that] is the most prominent theory of source and reality monitoring". This framework outlines the mechanisms by which source monitoring occurs: ◦ We engage in source monitoring by activating the memory of an episode and then making judgments about what is activated. ◦ These judgments are based on inferences and attributions made about the sources, using the characteristics retrieved with the episodes. ◦ The model highlights specific characteristics used in these judgments: ▪ Memories with rich visuo-perceptual detail and contextual detail are likely judged to be memories of a real event. During retrieval, brain areas like the PFC, hippocampus, parietal cortex, and sensory cortex communicate, potentially contributing this detail. ▪ Memories with traces of internally generated thoughts or memory of cognitive operations associated with thinking, wanting, or imagining are more likely judged to be internal experiences

Answer 47

The false memory induction procedure involves experimenters trying to implant a memory of an event from a participant's childhood that never actually happened. The process typically includes several steps: * Experimenters tell the participant about a specific childhood event. * To make the suggestion more credible, they often tell the participant that they have spoken to a family member (like a parent or older sibling) who provided details about the supposed event. * The experimenters repeatedly ask questions about this non-existent event, encouraging the participant to recall it. * Crucially, the experimenters confirm with a family member beforehand that the described event did not actually happen to the participant In a classic study by Loftus and Pickrell (1995), students were told they had been lost in a mall as a child when they hadn't. Although most participants did not generate a false memory, about 25% produced details about the invented event by the second experimental session. Similar percentages were found in other studies

Answer 48

Ebbinghaus, in 1885, began the systematic study of memory in his book Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology. Using himself as a subject, he developed experimental methods like learning nonsense syllables and measuring recall. He introduced key concepts like the forgetting curve, savings scores, overlearning, and distributed practice. He also documented the recency effect and the benefits of spaced learning. His methods and findings, especially about memory decay and rehearsal, continue to influence modern memory research.

Answer 49

Tulving is noted for distinguishing between semantic and episodic memory. He developed the HERA model (Hemispheric Encoding / Retrieval Asymmetry). This model, based on neuroimaging with PET in the 1980s, suggests hemispheric differences in brain activity for encoding and retrieval processes. ◦ The left prefrontal cortex is more involved in the retrieval of information from semantic memory (e.g., verb generation given a noun). ◦ The right pre-frontal cortex is more involved in the retrieval of episodic memory (e.g., recognition of previously heard sentences). ◦ The left pre-frontal lobe is more involved in encoding into episodic memory, at least for verbal material. ◦ No hemispheric differences were observed for encoding into semantic memory. *

Answer 50

Collins & Quillian proposed a semantic network model. In their model, words have pointers to other words in memory, and the configuration of these pointers represents the word's meaning. Their work used a sentence verification task to study this organization. * Their semantic network included a hierarchical structure. For example, "Canary" might be linked to "Bird," and "Bird" linked to "Animal". Properties were stored at the highest level in the hierarchy where they applied (e.g., "Animal has skin," "Bird can fly," "Canary is yellow, can sing"). The time it took to verify a sentence (e.g., "A canary can fly" or "A canary has skin") was initially thought to reflect the distance in this hierarchy. * However, research found that factors like familiarity and typicality strongly influenced sentence verification times. When these were controlled, the hierarchical distance between a concept and a property had little effect on verification time. * Spreading activation theories were developed to address problems with the Collins & Quillian model. Collins & Loftus proposed that semantic memory is organized according to semantic relatedness or distance, not just a strict hierarchy. When one node in an associative network is activated, the activation spreads to strongly associated nodes. This is supported by semantic priming studies.

Answer 51

Basic unit of information in working memory. A chunk may be decomposable into more information.

Answer 52

The amount of information that can be maintained in working memory.

Answer 53

– Lifelong involvement in intellectually- challenging activities – Active social life – Good diet and exercise * Doing these things reduces risk 38

final terms Flashcards

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