Exam #2 (Same cards reordered) Flashcards
1
Q
Inartistic pisteis
A
Evidence, testimony, data, etc
2
Q
Artistic pisteis (proofs)
A
a. Logos (the speakers message)
b. Ethos (The speakers credibility)
i. Character
ii. Intelligence/ knowledge
iii. Goodwill
c. Pathos (Connects 1 and 2 with audience’s mood)
3
Q
how the syllogism functions in the process of reasoning
A
Formal deduction
general premise to specific conclusion…. Enthymeme and syllogism
4
Q
the enthymeme (also deductive reasoning, but different from the syllogism in important “rhetorical” ways)
A
informal logic/reasoning…. rhetoric… deductive…. must know audience
Parts of enthymeme: 1. major premise (general principle)…….. 2. minor premise (specific case)…… 3. conclusion
5
Q
Example (inductive reasoning)
A
something specific that tells a larger point • Argument from example
6
Q
Koine Greek
A
“Common” greek. ○ Language of the aristocracy and the adminstration
7
Q
Senatus
A
(senate, latin from senex, old man, elder)
○ The council of elders
8
Q
Consul
A
“Co-leaders”
cicero very concerned with this… highest position in Roman Republic
9
Q
Republicanism
A
Republic = has consistution
cicero loved this. Rome was most successful during this time
10
Q
Citizen-orator
A
used wisdom and eloquence
11
Q
Perfectus orator
A
not flawless but has liberal education. complete orator. studies history, politics, law and public speaking. how you gain worldly wisdom
12
Q
Vir bonus dicendi peritus
A
good man speaking well
13
Q
Cicero
A
• Born in Arpinum, Italy • Moved to Rome for education • Began legal career in 81 BC ○ Only 25 years old ○ Perhaps the greatest lawyer in history
concerned with consul. great lawyer. greatest roman orator. defender of the republic. Isocratian and Aristoleinian. brought wisdom (philosopher) and eloquence (sophists) together
14
Q
Quintilian
A
• Quintilian ○ Born in Calagurris, La Rioja in Hispania • Father sent him to Rome ○ Educated early during Nero's reign • Returns to Spain ○ Begins legal career • Returns to Rome in 68 AD ○ Opens public school • Institutio Oratoria ○ The institutes of Oratory
born in spain. lawyer. bene dicendi scientia and vigornus dicendi peritus. spoke with cicero in mind. romes most famous teacher of rhetoric. judicial advocate
15
Q
Cicero’s De Oratore
A
Cicero wrote De Oratore to describe the ideal orator and imagine him as a moral guide of the state. He did not intend De Oratore as merely a treatise on rhetoric, but went beyond mere technique to make several references to philosophical principles. Cicero understood that the power of persuasion—the ability to verbally manipulate opinion in crucial political decisions—was a key issue. The power of words in the hands of a man without scruples or principles would endanger the whole community.
As a consequence, moral principles can be taken either by the examples of noble men of the past or by the great Greek philosophers, who provided ethical ways to be followed in their teaching and their works. The perfect orator shall be not merely a skilled speaker without moral principles, but both an expert of rhetorical technique and a man of wide knowledge in law, history, and ethical principles. De Oratore is an exposition of issues, techniques, and divisions in rhetoric; it is also a parade of examples for several of them and it makes continuous references to philosophical concepts to be merged for a perfect result.
16
Q
Quintilian’s Institutio Oratoria (The Institutes of Oratory)
A
Institutio Oratoria (English: Institutes of Oratory) is a twelve-volume textbook on the theory and practice of rhetoric by Roman rhetorician Quintilian. It was published around year 95 CE. The work deals also with the foundational education and development of the orator himself.
Know three key themes in Quintilian’s Institutes of Oratory.-Rhetoric ≠ Persuasion-Wisdom and Eloquence Are Linked-Orator and Rhetoric Defined in Moral Terms
17
Q
Quintilian’s definition of oratory (i.e. rhetoric)
A
Good man speaking well.
18
Q
the ways the syllogism and enthymeme are similar and different
A
• Form
○ Major premise: general principle, widely-accepted “truism,” community values, “common sense”
○ Minor premise: specific instance, case
The syllogism is used by philosophers for formal logic. They want everything to be stated explicitly. The enthymeme is
19
Q
what Aristotle claims about human emotions and their role in rhetoric and reasoning
A
Emotion and reason were not separate in Greek thought, but were used as aspects needed to arrive at rational judgements through public deliberation
20
Q
three (3) types of rhetoric and what each deals with
A
- Forensic/ judicial (the past)
a. Justice v. injustice
b. Kategoria (accusation) and apologia (defense)- Epideictic/ ceremonial (the present)
a. Honor v. dishonor
b. Eulogia (praise) and psogos (blame) - Deliberative (the future)
a. Utility
b. Reward/ benefit and injury/ cost
- Epideictic/ ceremonial (the present)
21
Q
What was Hellenism? And what was Rome’s attitude toward the Hellenistic system of education
A
Involved Koine Greek and Rhetoric, which was the core of education in hellenistic states
22
Q
Cicero’s reputation as a lawyer
A
Greatest lawyer in history
23
Q
why Cicero was described as the “New Man”
A
cicero - parents were not well off or in government positions
24
Q
important elements of Cicero’s career
A
Began legal career in 81 B.C. o Writes De Inventione (On Invention) o Becomes Roman Senator: Consul in 63 B.C. o Defeats Catalina’s coup d’etat o Forms the five canons of rhetoric
25
Cicero’s reputation as an orator and Latin writer on the subject of rhetoric
Believed to be the greatest Roman Orato
26
how and why Cicero came to be considered “a martyr for republicanism”
Cicero opposed tyranny in Rome wanted to see justice done in the law courts, believed no one is above the law o Speaks out against Julius Caesar and says NO! this is not a Republic (talking about the first Triumvirate: Caesar, Pompey, Crassus) Crassus is first to be defeated, then Pompey, and Julius Caesar is named dictator • Caesar is assassinated Second Triumvirate (Anthony, Octavian, Lepidus) o Cicero supports Octavian Cicero is killed by Anthony’s supporters
27
The Five Classical Canons of Oration
1. Inventio (Invention of the Arguments to be used in a Speech)
2. Dispositio (Disposition/Arrangement of the Parts of the Speech)
3. Elocutio (Elocution) and the three levels or types of style of language
4. Memoria (Memory/Memorization) and the cultural expectation when a
Roman delivered a public speech; why we refer to Memoria as the
“lost” canon
5. Pronuntiatio/Actio (Delivery of a speech) and what it relates to in the
delivery process
28
All six (6) core ideas of Cicero’s practice of and teachings about rhetoric/oratory, esp. what Cicero accuses Socrates of doing to wisdom and eloquence and how Cicero tries to counteract it
.1. Accused Socrates of The Great Divorce
2. Combined Wisdom and Eloquence
3. Accused Plato of hypocrisy
4. Philosophy = statecraft, practical ethics (isocrates and Aristotle)
a. Edmund Burke:
i. The world is uncertain...therefore….we should try to preserve order and tradition in order to prevent chaos.
5. Devotion to republicanism (rejection of tyranny and monarchy)
6. Jurisprudence: law creates community though controlled controversy
29
Cicero’s views of Plato.
thought plato separated eloquence from wisdom (clarity of thought)
30
the political context during Quintilian’s time (e.g., constraints on freedom of speech in what form?)
.Political system
• Roman Republic (Constitution)
• Senatus (senate, latin from senex, old man, elder)
○ The council of elders
• Highest positions: consul (co-leaders)
Legal system
• System of standing courts (around 7) to deal with recurring crimes (e.g. murder)
• 75 judges for more important cases, 51 for others
• Prosecutor was not a state official
○ Any citizen could charge another citizen
○ Citizens turned to professional advocates (lawyers)
○ Judges voted guilty, not guilty, not proven
§ Scottish legal system still has not proven
31
Quintilian’s views on ethos and how those ideas differ from Aristotle’s
Quintilianus' Core Ideas
1. Oratory is the "good man, speaking well"
2. Only "good" men may be properly called "orators"
3. For Quintilian, ethos is the actual character of the speaker
4. Oratory/ rhetoric is a virtue
Ethos: Quintilian v. Aristotle
• For Quintilian, ethos is the actual character of the speaker
• Before
• During
• And after the speech
• The speakers actual character, intelligence, and demonstration of good will toward the audience
• How is this different from aristotle
32
why Quintilian considers oratory/rhetoric to be a “virtue;”
* Oratory is "the good man, speaking well."
* But if eloquence be the art of speaking well, the definition which I adopt), so that a true orator must be, above all, a good man, it must assuredly be acknowledged that it is a useful art.
* Makes oratory useful to the individual and state
33
after whom Quintilian modeled his concept of the perfectus orator (“ideal orator”);
Cicero is the consummate orator
| ○ Cicero is the dieal that quintilian promotes
34
Quintilian’s reputation as a teacher of rhetoric in Rome.
The best teacher of rhetoric in Rome
35
euangélion
gospel
36
euangelistḗs
evangelist
37
Greco-Roman sapientia saeculi
Intellectual base for Christiana Tempora?
Contemporary pagan culture: greco-roman sapientia saeculi
38
libros gentilium
Bishops forbidden: no libros gentilium, unless necessary
39
modus inveniendi (materia
means of discovering scripture
Discover (hermeneutics: interpretation)
- Modus inveniendi (materia) Book 1-3
40
hermeneutics
interpretation
41
modus proferendi (eloquentia)
means of expressing what you found in scripture
Declare (homiletics: explanation)
- Modus proferendi (eloquentia) Book 4
42
homiletics
.explanation
43
la Rinascita
The Italian Renaissance
"The rebirth" in all things classical
44
humanitas
○ Emphasis on individual creative abilities
Not necessarily anti-Christian
45
uomo universale
Universal Man (Renaissance Man)
wisdom was joined to eloquence
46
studia humanitatis
A course of Classical studies, in the early 15th century consisting of grammar, poetry, rhetoric, history, and moral philosophy
47
res vs verba
res: substance or matter of one's arguments
verba: words in which that matter was advanced
48
umanista
a teacher or student of classical literature and the arts associated with it including rhetoric
49
oratio
public property of a speech
50
ratio
reason
51
vita activa versus vita contemplativa
Valla: Active life vs contemplative life.
52
Jesus
Adept at public speaking § "Sermon on the Mount"
§ Matthew, Chapters 5,6,and 7
○ Adept at argumentation
§ Engages in dialectic with Pharisees
§ Matthew 15:1-9
§ Mark 12:13-17, 18-27
§ Luke 10:25-37
§ How to argue like jesus: learning persuasion from histories greatest communicator (Carter and coleman 2009)
53
Ambrose
Bishop. Latin-speaking early church fathers.
54
Cyprian
Cyprian (formerly taught rhetoric at Carthage): renounced profane letters.
Had been teacher of rhetoric before converting to Christianity
55
Tertullian
He did not like Greek philosophy and other pagan writings and didn’t want to learn from them. "Everything we need to know about rhetoric is in the bible."
Had been teacher of rhetoric before converting to Christianity
56
Augustine of Hippo
Life and work: ○ Educated at Carthage, Africa
○ Heavily influenced by Cicero
○ Taught sophistic rhetoric
○ Traveled to Rome to teach rhetoric
○ Becomes friends with Bishop Ambrose
○ Converts to Christianity
○ Later: Bishop of Hippo (AD 395) currently, Bona; near nothern Algeria, North Africa
○ De Doctrine Christiana
§ Four volumes
§ First three books: ca AD 396
• Of the Latin-speaking early church fathers (St. Jerome, St. Ambrose, and St Augustine), Augustine was the "most influential writer and thinker on rhetorical matters."
57
Francesco Petrarca (Petrarch)
```
• Petrarch (1304-1374)
○ Italian poet & man of letters
• A model for thinking, writing, and acting in society
○ Faithfully Christian
○ Developed individual talents
• Humanitas
○ "We all see the world in a different way"
§ We're unique
○ -1345 discovers Cicero's letters
○ Letters to convey personal and literary style
○ An ideal of cultivated learning
○ Combine
§ Literary art
§ Moral philosophy
§ Civic responsibility
• "The Renaissance Man"
```
58
Desiderious Erasmus
was a Dutch Renaissance humanist, Catholic priest, social critic, teacher, and theologian.
Erasmus was a classical scholar and wrote in a pure Latin style. Among humanists he enjoyed the sobriquet "Prince of the Humanists", and has been called "the crowning glory of the Christian humanists".[3] Using humanist techniques for working on texts, he prepared important new Latin and Greek editions of the New Testament, which raised questions that would be influential in the Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation
59
Lorenzo (or Laurentius) Valla
* Valla (1407-1457)
* "Philosophy is like a soldier...under the command of oratory"
* Vita Contemplativa (Contemplative life) vs Vita Activa (Active life)
* Public property: Ratio & Oratio
* To lead the contemplative life is to rob the public of a well informed citizenry that is important to democracy
60
Rudolph Agricola
interested in classical rhetoric/dialectic, influenced by Italian humanist tradition, DIALECTIC, ornamentation
Rhetorical theorist: argued that speaking and oration was a gift from god
61
Peter Ramus
* Ramus (1515-1572)
* MA thesis: Aristotle is useless
* Published books attacking Cicero and Quintilian
* Regius professor of eloquence and philosophy
* Becomes a protestant
* Roman Catholic Queen consort of France Catherine de Medici orders the Saint Barthlomew Massacre. It is during this he is murdered
62
What quote is from The Gospel of Saint Luke, Chapter 4, verse 16 through verse 22 (Luke 4:16-22)
And he came to Nazareth, where he had been brought up: and, as his custom was, he went into the synagogue on the sabbath day, and stood up for to read.
17 And there was delivered unto him the book of the prophet Esaias. And when he had opened the book, he found the place where it was written,
18 The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he hath anointed me to preach the gospel to the poor; he hath sent me to heal the brokenhearted, to preach deliverance to the captives, and recovering of sight to the blind, to set at liberty them that are bruised,
19 To preach the acceptable year of the Lord.
20 And he closed the book, and he gave it again to the minister, and sat down. And the eyes of all them that were in the synagogue were fastened on him.
21 And he began to say unto them, This day is this scripture fulfilled in your ears.
22 And all bare him witness, and wondered at the gracious words which proceeded out of his mouth. And they said, Is not this Joseph's son?
63
What quote is from The Gospel of Saint Luke, Chapter 21, verse 5 through verse 28 (Luke 21:5-28)
And as some spake of the temple, how it was adorned with goodly stones and gifts, he said,
6 As for these things which ye behold, the days will come, in the which there shall not be left one stone upon another, that shall not be thrown down.
7 And they asked him, saying, Master, but when shall these things be? and what sign will there be when these things shall come to pass?
8 And he said, Take heed that ye be not deceived: for many shall come in my name, saying, I am Christ; and the time draweth near: go ye not therefore after them.
9 But when ye shall hear of wars and commotions, be not terrified: for these things must first come to pass; but the end is not by and by.
10 Then said he unto them, Nation shall rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom:
11 And great earthquakes shall be in divers places, and famines, and pestilences; and fearful sights and great signs shall there be from heaven.
12 But before all these, they shall lay their hands on you, and persecute you, delivering you up to the synagogues, and into prisons, being brought before kings and rulers for my name's sake.
13 And it shall turn to you for a testimony.
14 Settle it therefore in your hearts, not to meditate before what ye shall answer:
15 For I will give you a mouth and wisdom, which all your adversaries shall not be able to gainsay nor resist.
16 And ye shall be betrayed both by parents, and brethren, and kinsfolks, and friends; and some of you shall they cause to be put to death.
17 And ye shall be hated of all men for my name's sake.
18 But there shall not an hair of your head perish.
19 In your patience possess ye your souls.
20 And when ye shall see Jerusalem compassed with armies, then know that the desolation thereof is nigh.
21 Then let them which are in Judaea flee to the mountains; and let them which are in the midst of it depart out; and let not them that are in the countries enter thereinto.
22 For these be the days of vengeance, that all things which are written may be fulfilled.
23 But woe unto them that are with child, and to them that give suck, in those days! for there shall be great distress in the land, and wrath upon this people.
24 And they shall fall by the edge of the sword, and shall be led away captive into all nations: and Jerusalem shall be trodden down of the Gentiles, until the times of the Gentiles be fulfilled.
25 And there shall be signs in the sun, and in the moon, and in the stars; and upon the earth distress of nations, with perplexity; the sea and the waves roaring;
26 Men's hearts failing them for fear, and for looking after those things which are coming on the earth: for the powers of heaven shall be shaken.
27 And then shall they see the Son of man coming in a cloud with power and great glory.
28 And when these things begin to come to pass, then look up, and lift up your heads; for your redemption draweth nigh.
64
What quote is from The Acts of the Apostles, Chapter 17, verse 1 through verse 34 (Acts 17:1-34)
Now when they had passed through Amphipolis and Apollonia, they came to Thessalonica, where was a synagogue of the Jews:
2 And Paul, as his manner was, went in unto them, and three sabbath days reasoned with them out of the scriptures,
3 Opening and alleging, that Christ must needs have suffered, and risen again from the dead; and that this Jesus, whom I preach unto you, is Christ.
4 And some of them believed, and consorted with Paul and Silas; and of the devout Greeks a great multitude, and of the chief women not a few.
5 But the Jews which believed not, moved with envy, took unto them certain lewd fellows of the baser sort, and gathered a company, and set all the city on an uproar, and assaulted the house of Jason, and sought to bring them out to the people.
6 And when they found them not, they drew Jason and certain brethren unto the rulers of the city, crying, These that have turned the world upside down are come hither also;
7 Whom Jason hath received: and these all do contrary to the decrees of Caesar, saying that there is another king, one Jesus.
8 And they troubled the people and the rulers of the city, when they heard these things.
9 And when they had taken security of Jason, and of the other, they let them go.
10 And the brethren immediately sent away Paul and Silas by night unto Berea: who coming thither went into the synagogue of the Jews.
11 These were more noble than those in Thessalonica, in that they received the word with all readiness of mind, and searched the scriptures daily, whether those things were so.
12 Therefore many of them believed; also of honourable women which were Greeks, and of men, not a few.
13 But when the Jews of Thessalonica had knowledge that the word of God was preached of Paul at Berea, they came thither also, and stirred up the people.
14 And then immediately the brethren sent away Paul to go as it were to the sea: but Silas and Timotheus abode there still.
15 And they that conducted Paul brought him unto Athens: and receiving a commandment unto Silas and Timotheus for to come to him with all speed, they departed.
16 Now while Paul waited for them at Athens, his spirit was stirred in him, when he saw the city wholly given to idolatry.
17 Therefore disputed he in the synagogue with the Jews, and with the devout persons, and in the market daily with them that met with him.
18 Then certain philosophers of the Epicureans, and of the Stoicks, encountered him. And some said, What will this babbler say? other some, He seemeth to be a setter forth of strange gods: because he preached unto them Jesus, and the resurrection.
19 And they took him, and brought him unto Areopagus, saying, May we know what this new doctrine, whereof thou speakest, is?
20 For thou bringest certain strange things to our ears: we would know therefore what these things mean.
21 (For all the Athenians and strangers which were there spent their time in nothing else, but either to tell, or to hear some new thing.)
22 Then Paul stood in the midst of Mars' hill, and said, Ye men of Athens, I perceive that in all things ye are too superstitious.
23 For as I passed by, and beheld your devotions, I found an altar with this inscription, TO THE UNKNOWN GOD. Whom therefore ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you.
24 God that made the world and all things therein, seeing that he is Lord of heaven and earth, dwelleth not in temples made with hands;
25 Neither is worshipped with men's hands, as though he needed any thing, seeing he giveth to all life, and breath, and all things;
26 And hath made of one blood all nations of men for to dwell on all the face of the earth, and hath determined the times before appointed, and the bounds of their habitation;
27 That they should seek the Lord, if haply they might feel after him, and find him, though he be not far from every one of us:
28 For in him we live, and move, and have our being; as certain also of your own poets have said, For we are also his offspring.
29 Forasmuch then as we are the offspring of God, we ought not to think that the Godhead is like unto gold, or silver, or stone, graven by art and man's device.
30 And the times of this ignorance God winked at; but now commandeth all men every where to repent:
31 Because he hath appointed a day, in the which he will judge the world in righteousness by that man whom he hath ordained; whereof he hath given assurance unto all men, in that he hath raised him from the dead.
32 And when they heard of the resurrection of the dead, some mocked: and others said, We will hear thee again of this matter.
33 So Paul departed from among them.
34 Howbeit certain men clave unto him, and believed: among the which was Dionysius the Areopagite, and a woman named Damaris, and others with them.
65
What quote is from Tertullian’s On the Prescription for Heretics
"What indeed has Athens to do with Jerusalem? What concord is there between the Academy and the Church? What between heretics and Christians?"
66
What quote is from Cyprian’s Epistolarum ad Donatum (Letter to Donatus)
• "In courts of law, in public meetings, in political discussions, a full eloquence may be the pride of vocal ambition, but in speaking of the lord god, a pure simplicity of expression which is convincing depends upon the substance of the argument rather than upon the forcefulness of eloquence
67
What quote is from Augustine’s De Doctrina Christiana (On Christian Doctrine);
"Since, therefore, there has been placed at our disposal the power of eloquence, which so efficacious in pleading either for the erroneous cause or the right, why is it not zealously acquired by the good, so as to do service for the truth/"
68
What quote is from Agricola (definition/description of rhetoric/speech);
demoted rhetoric, rhetoric provides us with linguistic embellishment and eloquence of language along with all the baits for capturing ears
69
What quote is from Ramus (definition of rhetoric/“speech” and description of Quintilian’s definition of oratory)
Dialectic (Logic)
○ Inventio (invention)= § Creating arguments
○ Dispositio (disposition)
§ Arrangement of the parts of speech
• Rhetoric (speech)
○ Elocutio (style)
§ Lexical and syntactical
○ Memoria (memorization)
○ Actio (delivery)
§ Vocal & physical aspects of delivering a speech
• Basically his main argument is that rhetoric has nothing to do with thinking logic
• "Speech is the garment to clothe our reason"
• "From the development of language and speech only two proper parts will be left for rhetoric, style, and delivery; rhetoric will possess nothing proper and of its own beyond these."
70
Judeo-Christian Rhetoric: Related to the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament: evidence of rhetoric, primary rhetorical technique, and four forms of address;
Rhetoric in the Hebrew Bible
• Evidence of rhetoric:
○ Creation by enunciation
§ Pentateuch (moses)
§ Genesis: then God said, 'let there be…;"
• Rhetorical technique: assertion of divine authority
○ Analogous to ethos in classical rhetoric
§ Exodus 8:1 and the lord spoke to moses go to pharoah and say to him thus says the lord let my people go
§ Isaiah 1:1 "hear, o heavens, and give ear, o earth. For the lord has spoken
Forms of address:
• Covenant speech (deuteronomy )
• Prophecy (ezekiel)
• Epideictic (speeeches praising God)
Rules/ precepts of fine speech (the book of proverbs)
71
Related to the Christian Bible/New Testament: the language in which it was written and significant rhetorical features
○ Written in Greek (koine) for Greek speakers
○ Contains features of classical rhetoric…
§ Combined with jewish traditions
Modified by christian beliefs and values
72
Related to the Christian Bible/New Testament: influences of Jewish Sabbath services and the format of the Jewish sermon on it
• Influence of Jewish Sabbath: the Homily
○ Informal, spontaneous
○ Scriptural reading, interpretation, exhortation to follow the teaching
○ Luke 4:14-30 "He went into the synagogue on the Sabbath day, and stood up to read. And he was handed the book of the prophet Isaiah. And when He had opened the book…."
73
Related to the Christian Bible/New Testament: how Jesus is portrayed in terms of the use of rhetoric and argumentation
```
○ Adept at public speaking
§ "Sermon on the Mount"
§ Matthew, Chapters 5,6,and 7
○ Adept at argumentation
§ Engages in dialectic with Pharisees
§ Matthew 15:1-9
§ Mark 12:13-17, 18-27
§ Luke 10:25-37
§ How to argue like jesus: learning persuasion from histories greatest communicator (Carter and coleman 2009)
```
74
Related to the Christian Bible/New Testament: what the New Testament documents consist of
• 27 short Greek writings [Bible (Gr., biblia)
• Commonly called "books"
○ 1st - 4th are called historical "Gospels"
§ Matthew, Mark, Luke, John
§ The "Gospel" or "good news"
§ Messiah, or the Christ (Gr.) has come for the salvation of mankind
○ 5th is another historical writing
§ The Acts of the Apostles (Author: Luke)
○ 6th-27th "Epistles" letters
§ Gospels are meant to record history. Epistels are letters.
§ 13 of these 22 bear the name of Paul as author
§ 4 of these 22 bear the name of John (eyewitness)
§ 2 of these 22 bear the name of Peter (eyewitness)
§ 1 of these 22 bears the name of James (half-brother of Jesus)
New Testament Documents (M.J.Kruger, 2012)
• C.250 AD
• Origen provides a list of 27 books authored by 8 men (c. 1,766 yrs. Old)
• C. 180 AD - "Muratorian Fragment" (22 of 27 books)
• C. 150 AD - Papias: Gospels of Matthew and Mark valued because of apostolic status
○ Mark received his information from Peter (eyewitness)
○ Refers to c. 90 AD: Received info from John (Eyewitness)
○ Recognizes 1 Peter, 1 John, Revelation, and some Pauline epistles
• C. 95 AD - 1 Clement: Refers to 1 Corinthians
○ Likely allusions to 4-5 other Paulline epistles
New Testament Documents (Gary Habermas; Richard Bauckham 2006)
• C.55AD - Paul (1 Corinthians 15:3-8)
• I don't come to you with beautiful words and
• I have the truth: Christ died for our sins and came back.
• C.51-52 AD - Paul vists Corinth
• C.35-36AD - Paul had visited Jerusalem
○ Galatians 1:18-2:2 Paul stayed 15 day with Peter and James
○ "I went to them to make sure he knew what they were teaching.
• C.32-33 AD Paul's Damascus Road Conversion
○ Wants to persecute Christians
• C.30 AD Jesus' death by Roman crucifixion
75
Related to the Christian Bible/New Testament: the four factors influencing the use of classical rhetoric in the early Christian Church
1. Basic techniques were spread through the Roman educational system
2. Importance of preaching
a. Evangelist (evangelism, evangelical)
3. Importance of arguing effectively against "heretics"
a. Apologetics (apologia: defending the faith)
4. Church leaders often had been teachers of rhetoric before converting to Christianity
i. Terullian, Cyprian, Augustine
a. Other church leaders had received thorough education in rhetoric.
i. Ambrose, Jerome
76
Related to the Christian Bible/New Testament: the four forms of preaching in the early Christian Church
1. Missionary sermon
2. Prophetic preaching
3. Homily (Lat. Homilia)
4. Panegyrical
77
Related to the Christian Bible/New Testament: similarities and differences in Greek Philosophical rhetoric and Judeo-Christian rhetoric
Similarities:
• Truth
• Obligation to tell the Truth to others
• Emphasis on pistis ("Proof", evidence)
○ Romans 10:17 "So faith [pistis, peitho] comes from hearing, and hearing by the word of Christ…
○ John 20:30-31 "and truly Jesus did many other signs in the presence of His disciples, which are not written in this book; but these are writeen that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that believing you may have life in His name" (i.e. heres the evidence, now believe!)
Differences:
• Sources of Truth
• Primary mode of persuasion
• Rhetorical preparation
• Effectiveness of persuasion
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Augustine: the two most important cultural phenomena in the West after the collapse of the Roman Empire
o The rise of Christianity (Judeo-Christian Culture)
| o The Universal language: Latin
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Augustine: how some early Church leaders (i.e., during the 4th century) viewed rhetoric and why some of them felt this way
• Lactantius: pagan literature is "sweets which contain poison"
• Cyprian (formerly taught rhetoric at Carthage): renounced profane letters
• Titian: literature in general; rhetoric in particular was viewed as suspect.
• Justin: against literature
• Clement of Alexandria: against Greek philosophy
• The Fourth Council of Carthage (AD 398)
○ Bishops forbidden: no libros gentilium, unless necessary
• Tertullian: He did not like Greek philosophy and other pagan writings and didn’t want to learn from them. "Everything we need to know about rhetoric is in the bible."
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Augustine’s tasks, involving rhetoric, for the Christian teacher
1. to discover 2. to teach 3. to defend
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Augustine: the Christian preacher’s dilemma
1. potentially dangerous 2. finite rhetoric for an infinite god
A rhetoric of God is both impossible and unavoidable, discovering in finite rhetoric a means of communicating truth about an infinite God
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Augustine’s rhetorical theory in response to this dilemma
must 1. tell the truth and 2. defend the truth.
At often times platonic, Augustine believed that in order to contemplate God, the mind should be cleansed, and part of this process of preparing the mind for divine thoughts is rhetorical, the preacher corrects through good preaching the errors that have corrupted the mind, the preacher must know his subject matter in order to teach it
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the second dilemma Augustine faced regarding rhetoric in Christian schools
also, one must discover and then teach the contents of the SCRIPTURE
It was useful, even vital to confuting the heretics and teaching his own congregation but it was also suspect and potentially dangerous
He found the art of rhetoric both indispensable to his education work as a priest later a Bishop, yet he held that the received tradition of rhetoric was inconsistent in many respects with Christian principles
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Augustine: modus inveniendi and modus proferendi
1. Modus inveniendi: means of finding material for understanding scripture
2. Modus proferendi: expressing ideas found in scripture
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Augustine’s ideas on words or “signs,” and the things they represent
believes there is a strong relationship between words and signs
Augustine divides world into 2 broad categories: things & signs pointing to things
Sign: causes us to think of something beyond impression
Words: are one set of signs and the world itself could be understood as a system of signs and point people to God
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Augustine: six key ideas, concepts, teachings in Augustine’s De Doctrina Christiana (On Christian Doctrine) and the two primary reasons Augustine advanced in justifying the Christian Church’s study and use of classical rhetoric.
1. Proper treatment of scripture
§ Discover (hermeneutics: interpretation)
□ Modus inveniendi (materia) Book 1-3
§ Declare (homiletics: explanation)
□ Modus proferendi (eloquentia) Book 4
2. Hebrew and Christian Bibles
i. Biblical figures used rhetoric
1) Amos (Hebrew Bible)
2) Paul, the Apostle (Christian Bible)
3. "The end of eloquence is to persuade"
i. Like aristotle, rhetoric is just a tool
1) "What is better than wholesome sweets or sweet wholesomeness?"
4. Augustine and ethos
5. Augustine and "proof"
6. DDC: Primarily, technical rhetoric
i. "Teach what is right" (Preach the Gospel)
ii. "Correct what is wrong" (Defend the faith)
Christians needed training in reading the bible and in defending it
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The Renaissance: la Rinascita; characteristics of the intellectual, social, and religious changes that took place in Europe during the 14th to the 17th centuries (1300s-1600s);
The Renaissance (14th - 17th Centuries)
• La Rinascita
○ "The rebirth" in all things classical
• Northern Italy, Italy, Northern Europe, Engalnd
• Unusually obsessed with rhetoric (the internet in the mid-1990's)
○ The hallmark of the "educated person"?
○ Uomo univerale ("wisdom" & "eloquence")
○ Liberal education and can write and verbally communicate it
○ res (reasoning) and verba (clear communication skills)
• Italian city-states revived republicanism as a political ideal (especially Florence)
○ The teaching of rhetoric possible again
○ Practice of deliberative oratory possible again (no dictators anymore)
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the defining characteristics of the Italian Humanist movement
We all see the world in a different way"
We're unique
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Humanistic Study:
○ Interpretative
○ Perspectival
○ Diagnostic (can be Prescriptive)
○ Questions of value
○ Qualitative
○ Unique events, individual behavior, and/ or historic context
○ Analytical methods: interpreting meaning and value of messages
○ Argument, evidence
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responsible for the resurgence of interest in the classical languages and rhetoric
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Petrarch’s importance in the origins of Italian Humanism
His rediscovery of Cicero's letters is often credited with initiating the 14th century Renaissance
more interested in rhetoric's "persuasive power" than in its possibilities for "harmony and beauty" in language
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the Ciceronian concept Petrarch emphasized
Vita activa
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the pursuits Petrarch combined in his “ideal of cultivated learning"
Literary art
Moral philosophy
Civic responsibility
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Petrarch’s conception of the “Renaissance Man
Remove logic and science from universities and replace with ethical and rhetorical emphasis
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Renaissance humanism “Ciceronianism” and why Desiderious Erasmus (Erasmus of Rotterdam) advocated against it
he valued liberty more than orthodoxy
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Petrarch, Valla & Italian Humanism: the guiding intellectual values of the Humanist movement in Italy
○ Emphasis on individual creative abilities
| ○ Not necessarily non-Christian
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Lorenzo Valla’s reputation as a humanist scholar
Most influential of all humanist scholars
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Lorenzo Valla: his opinion regarding the relationship between rhetoric and philosophy: vita activa v. vita contemplativa
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Vita Contemplativa (Contemplative life) vs Vita Activa (Active life).
• To lead the contemplative life is to rob the public of a well informed citizenry that is important to democracy
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rhetoric was more comprehensive than dialectic and more informative than philosophy
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Valla’s source of “moral truth.”
to be found in the standards of common sense and rhetoric had a role in shaping and perpetuating the moral precepts of common sense
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Rudolph Agricola: demotion of rhetoric
"eventually succeeded in reforming scholastic education in its most important subject, dialectic"
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Rudolph Agricola: the goals of dialectic
clear reasoning and effective techings
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Rudolph Agricola: his description/definition of speech/rhetoric
dialectic emerged the clear winner, walking away with all the of the substances the wisdom of a speech
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Rudolph Agricola: what Agricola “split;”
split the ancient and venerable Ciceronian pair of wisdom and eloquence:
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Peter Ramus and the “Big Three” (i.e., “the academic gods of his time”) he was intent on “dethroning;”
The Big Three he wants to dethrone: Aristotle, Cicero, and Quintilian
On Quintillian's definition of "oratory"
"such a definition of an orator seems to me useless and stupid."
"in no one of these [i.e. the five classical canons of oration][ does he [i.e., quinitilian] fit in the moral philosophy which he now attributes to rhetoric."
Ramus' argument: The study and practice of moral philosophy (through dialectic), not the study of skill in speaking, teaches the orator to be a virtuous person!
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what Ramus thought of Quintilian’s definition of rhetoric and why
• On quintilian's definition of "oratory"
○ "Such a definition of an orator seems to me useless and stupid"
○ "in no one of these (i.e. the five classical canons of oration) does he (i.e. quintilian) fit in the moral philosophy which he now attributes to rhetoric
• Ramus' argument
○ The study and practice of moral philosophy (through dialectic), NOT the study of skill in speaking, teaches the orator to be a virtuous person!
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aspects of Ramus’ specific teachings about rhetoric v. dialectic (how Ramus divided the five classical canons of oration and why)
(In a nutshell):
1. philosophy (dialectic) - ideas and arguments
2. rhetoric (eloquence) - speaking the ability to reason is to innate in human beings
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• Dialectic (Logic)
○ Inventio (invention)
§ Creating arguments
○ Dispositio (disposition)
§ Arrangement of the parts of speech
• Rhetoric (speech)
○ Elocutio (style)
§ Lexical and syntactical
○ Memoria (memorization)
○ Actio (delivery)
§ Vocal & physical aspects of delivering a speech
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how Ramus described speech/rhetoric.
• Basically his main argument is that rhetoric has nothing to do with thinking logic
"Speech is the garment to clothe our reason"
• "From the development of language and speech only two proper parts will be left for rhetoric, style, and delivery; rhetoric will possess nothing proper and of its own beyond these."
○ Rhetoric should be used to make OTHER people think
