Exam 3 Flashcards
(215 cards)
1
Q
Perceptual process of hearing
A
1.Sound stimulus is produced
2.Sound travels through the air and is received by the auditory receptors
3.Signals are transduced and sent to the brain
4.Sound information is processed in the brain
5.We perceive the sound
6.We recognize the sound
7.We act on the sound
2
Q
Physical definition of sound
A
pressure changes in the air
3
Q
Perceptual definition of sound
A
experience we have when we hear
4
Q
Sound occurs when…
A
the movement or vibration of an object causes pressure changes in a medium that can transmit vibrations
5
Q
Condensation
A
Increase in density
6
Q
Rarefaction
A
Decrease in density
7
Q
Sound wave
A
pattern of pressure changes
8
Q
Pure tone
A
tone with pressure changes that can be described as a single sine wave
Building blocks of sound
9
Q
Frequency
A
number of cycles per second that the pressure changes repeat
measured in Hertz (Hz)
Associated with pitch
10
Q
What range of Hz can humans perceive?
A
20-20,000 Hz
11
Q
Amplitude
A
Size of the pressure change
measured in decibels (dB)
associated with loudness
12
Q
Decibels increase logarithmically
A
an increase of 20 dB means the amplitude is 10x greater
13
Q
Periodic tones
A
tones with a repeating waveform
14
Q
Periodic tones have a ____.
A
Fundamental frequency
15
Q
Fundamental frequency
A
Number of times a sound repeats per second
16
Q
The first harmonic or fundamental of a complex tone, is usually the ___ in the frequency spectrum of a complex tone.
A
lowest frequency
17
Q
Higher harmonics
A
The other components of a tone; frequencies are whole number multiples of the fundamental frequency
18
Q
Loudness
A
Perceptual quality most closely related to amplitude of an auditory stimulus
19
Q
What Hz are humans most sensitive to?
A
2,000-4,000 Hz
20
Q
Pitch
A
quality of a sound ranging from low to high, most closely related to a frequency of a tone
21
Q
Octave
A
tones that have frequencies that are binary multiples of each other
22
Q
Timbre
A
quality that distinguishes between two tones that sound different even though they have the same loudness, pitch, and duration
23
Q
Attack
A
Buildup of sound at the beginning of the tone
24
Q
Decay
A
decrease in sound at the end of the tone
25
Aperiodic sounds
sound waves that do not repeat
26
Physical qualities of sound
Frequency
amplitude
harmonic structure
27
Perceptual qualities of a sound
Pitch
loudness
timbre
28
Three main sections of the ear
Inner ear
middle ear
outer ear
29
Tympanic membrane
ear drum
30
What makes up the outer ear?
Pinna
auditory canal
Tympanic membrane
31
The outer ear is responsible for
resonance
resonance frequency
32
Resonance
Certain frequencies are enhanced
33
What makes up the middle ear?
Ossicles
Oval window
middle ear muscles
34
What are the three parts of the ossicles
Malleus
Incus
stapes
35
What are the ossicles responsible for
concentrating the vibration of the large tympanic membrane onto the much smaller stapes
36
middle ear muscles
dampen loud sounds and our own sounds
37
Parts of the inner ear
Cochlea
cochlear partition- extends from base to apex
organ of Corti
hair cells-stereocilia
basilar membrane
tectorial membrane
38
Steps of sound transmission
1. Stapes vibrates
2. Oval window moves back and forth
3. Vibrations travel through cochlear fluid
4. Basilar membrane moves up and down
5a. Organ of Corti moves up and down
5b. Tectorial membrane move back and forth
6. Stereocilia of hair cells bend one way
7. Tip links stretch
8. Tiny ion channels open
9. Potassium (K+) flows in
10. Electrical signal results
11. Neurotransmitters released in synapse
12. Stereocilia bend other way
13. Ion channels close
39
Vibrations bend the
stereocilia
40
bending of stereocilia causes
electrical signals
41
A sound wave's frequency determines the ____.
Timing of electrical signals
42
Phase locking
firing of auditory neurons in synchrony with the phase of an auditory stimulus
43
Békésy discovered ...
how the basilar membrane vibrates like a traveling wave.
44
Place of greatest vibration depends on...
Frequency
45
Base (____)
Apex (____)
High frequencies
low frequencies
46
The basilar membrane has a ___ organization
Tonotopic
47
Tonotopic map
orderly map of frequencies (tones) along the length of the cochlea
48
Cochlear amplifier
expansion and contraction of the outer hair cells in response to sound sharpens the movement of the basilar membrane to specific frequencies
49
Place theory
says that pitch perception is based on the place along the basilar membrane at which the nerve firing is highest
50
Problem with place theory
amplitude-modulated noise – noise that isn’t associated with vibration of a particular part of basilar membrane, yet still results in pitch perception
51
Frequency theory
says that pitch perception is based on the frequency of action potentials in auditory nerve neurons, which occur at the same frequency as the sound.
- considered the best theory
52
Damage to inner hair cells
loss of sensitivity
53
Damage to outer hair cells
loss of sensitivity and loss of sharp frequency tuning (cochlear amplification)
54
Auditory pathway
Cochlea
Auditory nerve
Cochlear nucleus
Superior olivary nucleus
Inferior colliculus
Medial geniculate nucleus (thalamus)
A1 (primary receiving area)
Other areas in cortex
55
Presbycusis
hearing loss caused by hair cell damage resulting from cumulative effects over time
caused by noise exposure, drugs that damage hair cells, and age-related degeneration
affects men more than women
56
Greatest loss of hearing for Presbycusis
greatest loss for high frequencies
57
Noise-induced hearing loss
occurs when loud noises cause degeneration of the structures involved in hearing
58
Noise-induced hearing loss can involve damage to
Organ of Corti
hair cells
auditory nerve fibers
59
Cochlear implants
use electrodes inserted into the cochlea to create hearing by electronically stimulating auditory nerve fibers.
60
Parts of cochlear implant
1. microphone
2. sound processor
3. transmitter
4. array of electrodes
essentially acts as the hair cells
61
Auditory localization
perception of the location of a sound source
62
Auditory space/ scene
the sound environment, which includes the locations and qualities of individual sound sources
63
Location cues
characteristics of a sound that provide info regarding location of the sound source
64
Binaural cues
require two ears
determine the azimuth of sounds
65
monaural cues
requires only one ear
66
Three dimensions in auditory space
Azimuth
elevation
distance
67
Azimuth
left-right sound cues
68
Elevation
up-down sound cues
69
Distance
how far or close the sound is
70
Interaural time difference (ITD)
difference between when a sound reaches the left ear and when it reaches the right ear
between-ear sound difference
71
What is ITD best for
low-frequency sounds
most important binaural cue
72
Interaural level difference (ILD)
difference in sound pressure level (amplitude of the sound reaching the two ears)
73
Acoustic shadow
The head blocks the ear, resulting in the sound appearing quieter in the opposite ear
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ILD is best for
high-frequency sounds
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The ILD and the ITD leave ____ ambiguous
elevation
76
Cone of confusion
surface in the shape of a cone that extends out from the ear; sounds originating from different locations on this surface all have the same ITD and ILD, so location info provided by these cues is ambiguous
77
The anterior auditory cortex is important for
pitch perception
77
A1 travels to other cortical auditory areas
core area
belt area
parabelt area
78
Core area
A1 and nearby
78
Belt area
surrounds and receives signal from core
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Spectral cue
distribution of frequencies reaching the ear that are associated with specific locations of a sound, caused by interaction of sound with head and pinnae
important for elevation
80
Parabelt area
receives signals from belt area
81
Hoffmann et al.
demonstrated the importance of the pinnae for localization of elevation
82
The Jeffress neural coincidence model
neural circuit for processing the interaural time difference
neurons are wired to each to receive signals from the two ears, so that different neurons fire to different ITDs
83
Coincidence detectors
neurons detecting the coincidence of both ears firing together
84
Mammals have much broader
ITD tuning curves
85
Location of sound indicated by a ratio of responding in groups of
broadly tuned neurons
86
A1 and other areas are involved in
sound localization
evidence from ablation and cortical cooling, single electrode recordings
87
Posterior belt
precise info about location of a sound
88
Two auditory pathways extend from the
temporal lobe to the frontal lobe
89
What pathway
Identifying sounds
90
Where pathway
Localizing sounds
91
Direct sound
from sound source
92
Indirect sound
reflections of sound
93
Precedence effect
when two identical or very similar sounds reach a listener’s ears separated by only a short time interval, the listener hears the first sound that reaches his or her ears
94
Architectural acoustics
study of how properties of a room affect the quality of a sound.
95
Reverberation time
the time it takes for the sound to decrease to 1/1000th of its original amplitude
96
Auditory scene analysis
sounds produced by different sources become perceptually organized into sounds at different locations and into separated streams of sound
97
Melody
sequence of pitches perceived as belonging together
98
Music
sound organized in a way that creates a melody.
99
Rhythm
the time pattern of durations created by notes
100
Beat
equally spaced intervals of time
101
Listening to a beat activates
motor areas
102
Meters
the organization of beats into bars or measures.
103
acoustic signal
pattern of frequencies and intensities of the sound stimulus
104
The sound that's produced from the voice depends on the shape of the
vocal tract
105
articulators
structures involved in speech production
106
vowel sounds are produced by
vibrating the vocal cords
107
the specific sound of each vowel is created by
changing the overall shape of the vocal tract, changes resonant frequency which changes sounds.
108
Each vowel sound has a characteristic series of
formants
109
formant
horizontal band of energy in speech spectrogram associated with vowels
110
sound spectrogram
shows the pattern of intensities and frequencies for a speech stimulus
111
consonants are produced by
constricting or closing the vocal tract
112
formant transitions
rapid shifts in frequency that precede or follow a formant
113
speech sounds are described by the manner and place of articulation, as well as
being voiced or unvoiced
114
Place of articulation
Lips /b/
alveolar ridge /d/
soft palate /g/
115
manner of articulation
stopped /b/
partially obstructed /s/
initially blocked /j/
nasal /n/
116
voiced or unvoiced
voiced- b, a, e, i, o u
unvoiced- p, t, k
117
phoneme
shortest segment of speech that, if changed, would change the meaning of the word
speech sound, not letter
118
different languages have ____ of phonemes
different numbers
119
variability problem
there is no simple relationship between a particular phoneme and the acoustic signal
120
coarticulation
overlapping articulation that occurs when different phonemes follow one another in speech
121
two sources of variability in the variability problem
variability from context (surrounding phonemes) and the acoustic signals.
122
variability in pronunciation
pitch, speed, accent
123
categorical perception
we only perceive phonemes in discrete categories, even though phonetic features may vary continuously
124
voice onset time
time delay between when the sound begins and when the vocal cords begin vibrating
125
phonetic boundary
the Voice onset time when perception changes from one speech category to another
126
How does the speech perception system solve the variability problem?
categorical perception, info provided by the face, info from our knowledge of language.
127
speech perception is aided by info from
faces
128
McGurk effect
speech perception is influenced by both auditory and visual stimuli
129
Speech perception is influenced by both
top-down and bottom-up processing
130
speech segmentation
perceiving individual words from continuous flow of speech signals
131
Transitional probabilities
chances that one sound will follow another sound
132
aphasia
difficulty speaking or understanding speech due to brain damage
133
Broca's aphasia
problems with speech production and grammar
134
Wernicke's aphasia
problems with speech comprehension
135
Areas of the brain involved in speech perception
Parietal lobe, STS, temporal lobe
136
Parietal lobe damage
difficulty discriminating between syllables
137
STS
activated more by voices than other sounds
138
Temporal lobe
Voice cells respond more strongly to recordings of monkey calls
139
dual-stream model of speech perception
Ventral- recognizing speech
Dorsal- Linking acoustic signals to movements used to produce speech
140
speech perception development involves
learning the sounds of a language
141
somatosensory system
sensation of the body and its movements
142
Proprioception
ability to sense the position of the body and limbs
143
Kinesthesia
ability to sense the movement of the body and limbs
144
Cutaneous senses
sensations from receptors in the skin
145
Functions of the skin
-holding in bodily fluids
-protection
-warnings and other info
146
Layers of the skin
epidermis
dermis
hypodermis
147
4 types of mechanoreceptors
-Merkel receptor
-Messiner corpuscle
-Ruffini cylinder
-Pacinian corpuscle
148
Merkel receptor
fine detail
course texture
149
Ruffini cylinder
stretching of skin
150
Pacinian corpuscle
Vibration, fine texture
151
Messiner Corpuscle
grip control
152
Medial lemniscal
large fibers,
touch, proprioception
fast
153
Spinothalamic pathway
smaller fibers
pain, temperature
slower
154
Primary somatosensory cortex (s1)
somatotopic organization
example of cortical magnification
155
cortical body maps demonstrate
plasticity
156
people can detect very small
tactile details
157
tactile acuity
ability to detect details on the skin
158
tactile acuity is better in some areas than others
ex. better in fingertips that palms
159
tactile acuity responds to
representation space in the brain
160
tactile acuity also depends on
cortical receptive field size
161
three elements that tactile acuity depends on
receptor spacing
cortical representation
receptive field size
162
duplex theory of texture perception
says that our perception of texture depends on both spatial cues and temporal cues
163
Spatial cues
from large surface elements, can be detected with or without motion
164
temporal cues
from fine-grained surface elements, can only be detected with motion
165
Neuropathic pain
damage to the nervous system
166
Nociceptive pain from nociceptors
detects heat, chemicals, pressure, cold
167
direct pathway model of pain
pain occurs when nociceptors are stimulated and they send signals directly from the skin to the brain
168
fine textures are detected by
Pacinian corpuscles
169
coarse textures are detected by
Merkel receptors
170
Phantom limb syndrome
when someone continues to perceive a limb after it has been amputated
171
Active touch
when a person actively explores an object
172
Passive touch
when touch stimuli are applied to the skin
173
haptic perception
perception in which 3-D objects are explored with the fingers and hand
174
exploratory procedures
used to investigate objects
175
gate control model of pain
pain perception is determined by a neural circuit that takes into account signals from nociceptors, mechanoreceptors, cortex
176
4 exploratory procedures
lateral motion, pressure, enclosure, contour following
177
Social touch
one person touching another
178
Placebo effect
relief from symptoms resulting from a substance that has no pharmacological effect
179
mechanoreceptors are concentrated in
glabrous (non- hairy) skin
180
C-Tactile (CT) afferent nerve fibers
found in hairy skin and respond to gentle stroking
181
Social touch hypothesis
CT afferents are responsible for social touch
182
Pain matrix
network of brain structures involved in pain perception
S1, Thalamus, amygdala, insula, ACC, PFC, hippocampus
183
pain is multimodal, it involves both
sensory and affective components
184
Opioid
chemical that reduces pain and induces feelings of euphoria
work by taking the place of endorphins
185
Social touch involves the ____ of touch rather than the ____ that mechanoreceptors produce
affective function, discriminative function
186
CT fibers are specially sensitive to
slow stroking
187
Endorphins
natural pain relievers in the brain
endogenous morphines
188
Naloxone (Narcan)
Blocks endorphin receptors to block opioids
can reverse opioid overdose
189
Social touch activates the
insula
190
Placebos can result in the release of
endorphins
191
social touch perception is influenced by
top-down processing
192
four types of papillae on the tongue
filiform, fungiform, foliate, circumvallate
193
which papillae does not contain taste buds?
filiform
194
each taste bud contains
50-100 taste cells
195
taste pathway
-taste cells
-chorda tympani & other cranial nerves
-nucleus of the solitary tract (brain stem)
-ventral posterior nucleus (thalamus)
-insula and frontal operculum (primary taste cortex)
196
population coding for taste
taste quality is signaled by the pattern of activity distributed across many neurons
197
Specificity coding
taste quality is signaled by activity in individual neurons tuned to respond to specific qualities
198
Olfactory and taste receptors undergo
neurogenesis
199
evidence for population coding
across-fiber patterns
Erickson (1963)
200
5 (or 6) basic tastes
salty
sour
sweet
bitter
umami
(fats-oleogustus)
201
taste acts as a gatekeeper of
what to eat and what to avoid
202
Evidence for specificity coding
genetic cloning experiments
PTC-bitter
203
tips of taste cells protrude through
taste pores
204
Transduction occurs when chemicals contact
receptor sites on tips
205
basic taste qualities are determined by
specificity coding
206
subtle differences in taste are determined by
population coding
207
there are differences in taste perceptions across different
species and people
208
Olfaction can act as a
warning system
209
Macrosmatic vs microsmatic animals
macrosmatic have a strong, keen sense of smell important for their survival
microsmatic have a less keen sense of smell, not as important for survival
210
Anosmia
inability to smell
211
pheromones are detected via the
vomeronasal organ
212
humans do not have a functioning
vomeronasal organ, but we can detect odors related to fertility
213
