Exam 3 Flashcards
1
Q
Who introduced the idea of sexual selection?
A
Charles Darwin in the book “on the origin of species”
Expanded on in “The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to
Sex.”
2
Q
what are the two methods of sexual selection according to Charles Darwin?
A
Intersexual Selection
Intrasexual Selection.
3
Q
Members of the same gender competing to mate with the other gender?
A
Intrasexual selection
4
Q
Members of one sex influence the characteristics of the opposite sex through sexual selection?
A
Intersexual Selection.
Done through “Mate Choice.”
5
Q
In intersexual selection which gender is in demand? the one making choices or the sex being affected?
A
The one making choices.
Think Female Choosiness.
6
Q
Who theorized that females will usually invest more energy into offspring than males and therefore be the limiting resource?
A
A.J. Bateman.
7
Q
What did A.J. Bateman conduct studies on?
A
Drosophila
To test the reproductive success of fruit flies and found more variance between males, meaning that females reproductive success does not depend on number on mates as heavily.
8
Q
What are two reasons that females tend to be the limiting reproductive resource?
A
Gametes are genetically more expensive and produce less.
Females tend to have more parental investment.
9
Q
Male Seahorses are known to incubate the eggs the females produce, yet the males still compete with each other for females, why?
A
Intrasexual selection is happening because the energy the females put into producing the eggs is still more than the energy males spend incubating them. Females are still the limiting resource.
10
Q
In general the fertility of a male or female will be more limited?
A
The female. This leads to females being much more “choosy/ coy” while males may have an indiscriminate eagerness.
11
Q
Why is it that males are not totally indiscriminate in mate choosing?
A
Because the energy it costs to produce sperm may be cheap, but the amount produced makes up for this.
12
Q
A packet of spermatozoa and proteins used to deliver to the female?
A
Spermatophore.
13
Q
Who assumed that females were passive in reproduction?
A
Bateman.
14
Q
What is special about bonobo mate selection?
A
They are a matriarchal species and the females generally will initiate contact with the males for mating.
15
Q
Usually the number of mates will not increase a females reproductive success. Why, what may be evidence against this?
A
This is because females have a limited fecundity. Animals, usually insects, which produce a spermatophore may challenge this, as the spermatophore give the female nutrients as well, so the more spermatophores a female gets the higher her egg production/ reproductive success may be.
16
Q
What type of sexual selection may lead to an increase in the males size Vs the females?
A
Usually intrasexual selection, bigger males have a greater chance of winning in competing for females.
17
Q
What is a species that shows female dominance?
A
Wolves. The lead male and female both will dominate over their own sex in the pack.
18
Q
Phenotypic difference between males and females of the same species?
A
Sexual Dimorphism.
19
Q
What type of sexual selection is generally associated with sexual dimorphism of ornamentation?
A
Intersexual selection. This is because ornamented males are more likely to be chosen by females, but this may also be a part of intrasexual selection as well.
In horned beetles the females are choosy for bigger horns, but the horns also assist the males in fending off other males (Intrasexual.)
20
Q
Why do African cichlids have one of the greatest size sexual dimorphisms?
A
This is due to intrasexual selection. The males mate by collecting shells for the females to lay eggs in. So the males must be big enough to carry and defend the eggs and the females must be small enough to fit in the shells.
21
Q
Elephant seals exhibit what kind of sexual selection?
A
Intrasexual selection.
The males arrive to plots of land before the females and will defend their territory and then harem of females from other males. They will often go without food to ensure other seals do not get access to their females. The males fighting with each other is usually non-fatal and often is ending just through bluffing.
22
Q
What are the alternative mating strategies used by non-dominant males?
A
Sneak/ Streak spawning, Satellite Male, and some just sit on the outside of a harem waiting.
23
Q
What is called when a non-dominant males rushes up to a mating pair to attempt insertion of his sperm?
A
Sneak/ Streak spawning. This is common in reptiles, but also salmon where this male is called a Jack male.
24
Q
What are the three color morphs of side blotched lizards? what do they mean?
A
Orange: Prime Dominant Male
Blue: Dominant enough for one female territory, over powered by orange, but easily fends off yellow.
Yellow: On the periphery to mate with the orange’s females while the orange is out- territory is large enough to not be seen at all times.
This is an example of sneak spawning.
25
Male that mimics a female to get access to breeding opportunities?
Satellite male. This is a sneaker fish that is too large to hide. They will get in-between a dominant courting male and female just as they spawn.
They may also use this to increase indirect fitness for a relative instead.
Bluegill sunfish do this.
26
What is the usual cause of a satellite male existing?
These males are usually younger and smaller therefore they cannot defend or claim their own females or territories. They also do not inout any parental investment.
27
What is Sperm competition?
The Competition between spermatozoa of two different males to fertilize an egg of one female.
28
What scenarios usually lead to sperm competition?
When females have many partners, while this may increase her reproductive success it usually lowers the chances for a male.
This is a sexual conflict of males and females.
29
What are the 6 defensive sperm competition methods?
- Mate guarding
- Mating plug
- Prolonged mating
- Releasing substances which make it less likely for the female to mate again.
- Breaking off the mating appendage within the female (Regenerative usually.)
- Sperm Partitioning.
30
What are three methods of offensive sperm competition?
- Increased Sperm Production
- Increased Sperm motility.
-Mechanisms to displace or inactivate competing sperm.
31
A male mates with a female and then defends other males from approaching her, what is this an example of?
This is an example of defensive sperm competition. This may occur pre or post copulatory.
32
A male guards a female only around the times she is fertile?
Strategic defensive sperm competition mate guarding, this allows the male to attempt extra pair paternity while painting intra pair paternity.
EX: Blue crabs- females can only mate right after molting so a male will mate with her and guard her only until her shell hardens.
33
When a male inserts a gelatinous substance that hardens/ interferes with another male mating directly after he has mated with a female?
Post-copulatory plug.
"Time-advantage."
Found in many insects and may be used as part of a spermatophores. Also found in reptiles and some mammals such as rats.
Defensive sperm competition.
34
What is an advantage of post-copulatory plug Vs. Mate guarding?
The male that is guarding cannot further increase his fitness by mating with more females while the copulatory plug allows the male to leave immediately to find another female.
35
When a male does not release all of his sperm into one female?
Sperm partitioning, this allows the male to conserve more sperm to mate with more females, however it does leave the female with less sperm so possibly less chance of success with her individually.
Blue headed wrasse fish do this.
Defensive sperm competition.
36
What are the two advantages of prolonged mating?
This means other males are not mating with the female.
Allows the male to release even more sperm into the female. This is common in insects, but also dogs do this called "knotting".
Defensive sore competition.
37
What are mating inhibitory secretions?
These are secretions of the male put onto the female that make her less receptive/ or less attractive to mating. These secretions may also stimulate ovulation and oogenesis.
Defensive sperm competition.
38
When a male has increased production of sperm for offensive sperm competition and the resulting cells are smaller due to the energy cost of so much sperm?
Anisogamy.
39
Gorillas have smaller testicle than bonobos, why?
Female Gorillas are relatively monogamous, while bonobos are very promiscuous, this means offensive increased production of sperm competition is more at play in bonobos, and larger testes can produce more sperm.
40
What is increased sperm motility?
an offensive sperm competition where some males will produce a normal amount of sperm but these sperm have more motility to reach the egg first.
41
Damselflies have an appendage before mating they use to remove previous ejaculate prior to mating, what is this an example of?
This is an offensive sperm competition by a mechanism to displace competing sperm.
Dunnock birds and crabs also do a form of this.
42
What is sperm heteromorphism?
when not all of the sperm produced into the ejaculate is meant for fertilization.
There will be eusperm (Normal) and parasperm (Usually has a purpose to displace or inactivate competing sperm.)
43
What is eusperm?
Normal sperm meant for fertilization.
44
What is parasperm?
Sperm not meant for fertilization, meant to displace or inactivate competing sperm.
Form a barrier to competing sperm
Attack/kill other sperm
Assist the eusperm.
This is a sperm heteromorphism.
Offensive sperm competition.
45
Any behavior which reduces a rivals reproductive fitness?
Sexual Interference.
46
Newts will clasp together to mate, when a male newts clasps another male it will clasp back to show it is also male. some male newts do not clasp back and allow the new to release it's spermatophore, what is this an example of?
Pseudofemale behavior Sexual interference.
The males have a limited number of spermatophores and this one has now been wasted when it could've gone to a female.
47
What are the three tactics of sexual interference in newts?
- Pseudo-female behavior.
- Amplexus interference
- Spermatophore interference.
48
What is an amplexing male?
When the male is wrapped around the female to fertilize her eggs as she lays them.
49
When a male is amplexing a female another male shows up. this pauses the apmplexing male and he will now have to start again. What is this an example of?
Amplexus sexual interference The male starting all over again is wasting energy that could've been spent on more females.
50
A rival male inserts himself between an external mating couple and releases his spermatophore as well, what is this an example of?
Spermatophore sexual interference.
The female may use the rival males spermatophore, this would decrease the OG males reproductive success both directly and indirectly by way of a wasted spermatophore.
51
What are the four modes of sexual interference?
What kind of competition is this?
- Pseudo-female behavior.
- Amplexus interference
- Spermatophore interference.
- Infanticide.
This is intrasexual competition.
52
When a male kills the kids of his new harem. Benefits?
The kids are from previous male, this will make the female receptive to mater sooner and reduce intraspecific competition between his and the previous males offspring.
Since this means these new cubs have these genetics that improve their own reproductive success this behavior has stayed prevalent.
53
how do waterbeds participate in infanticide?
Although usually males commit infanticide, in water bugs males care for the larvae on their backs, this makes them a limiting resource and then females will stab the larvae if they cannot find a free male so that he can take care of her own eggs.
54
when the members of one gender influence the characteristics of the opposite gender through mate choice?
Intersexual selection.
55
Peacocks will display their feathers to the peahen. She will be choosy about the male ornamentation, what is predicted she is looking for?
Symmetry- Asymmetry may indicate poor health/ less offspring.
The vigor of presenting shows that male has enough nutrition to waste on display and may be a better provider.
56
What are Three criteria of choosy females selecting males?
- Sperm Production: female Stone crabs will prefer unmated larger male crabs= More sperm.
- Ability to provide resources:
- Ability to provide good genes.
57
What are the resources a male may provide to a female?
Short term gains: Nupital gifts: These can range from an eaten gift, spermatophore absorbed across cloacal mucosa & cannibalism.
Long Term gains: Territory & Parental investment.
58
When a male gives a female a courtship food gift?
Nupital gift by way of courtship feeding.
Shrike birds will place impaled prey on thorns and the female will choose the biggest prey.
Some spiders will give a wrapped food item.
Some insects give an edible spermatophores and will inseminate with another.
59
Scorpionflies gift a non-edible salivary gift, why might this be valuable to the female?
The salivary secretion shows the male has the energy and resources to have good genes. Males in poor condition will prolonger the precopulatory period so their gift is less likely to be rejected, while males with ample resources will have more gifts/ shorter precopulatory periods/ more mating opportunities.
This is a short term nupital gift gain.
60
What are the benefits of cannibalism?
The female gets nutrients and the male gets to increase his direct fitness.
61
House wrens will select a male based on the number of nesting sites within his territory, what is this an example of?
intersexual selection. The males with bigger territories will generally have a higher fitness. The females are selecting for a long term gain.
62
Male Calliope humming birds will bring many food gifts to the female during courtship, these birds also assist in parental investment. The male birds which bring more gifts are chosen. What is this an example of, what is the female selecting for?
This is intersexual selection, the female is selecting for long term gains of parental investment. The gifts show how well the male will provide to the offspring.
63
What are three factors which determine the quality of a males genes?
- Ability to dominate rivals
- Ability to produce and maintain showy displays.
- Ability to produce and maintain sexual ornamentation.
in mammals pheromones may indicate the reproductive health of the individual.
64
In peacock spiders the showier spiders get to mate with the female, what is this an examples of? what is the female choosing for?
Intersexual selection.
The female is choosing for better genes that show the spider is able to maintain sexual ornamentation.
The female will also eat him after so he may also be a post copulatory nupital gift.
65
Why do blue tits have sexual dimorphism?
The females are choosy towards males with more yellow plumage. The yellow plumage is associated with better ability to gain nutrition -the bugs contribute to feather color- more yellow birds will have better body condition. The females therefore are also selecting for better genes of the males and likely better parental investment.
66
What does the male king bird of paradise show in sexual selection?
intersexual selection, the females choose the males with a better mating dance that shows off his genes for strength.
67
What does the male bower bird of paradise show in sexual selection?
These male birds will build an elaborate nest, a bower, to attract a mate and also perform a mating dance, this shows off his resourceful and energetic genes. The male will also raise the young and so this may also show ability to commit to parental investment.
68
Who proposed the handicap principle?
Amotz Zahavi. Proposed the idea that a male which is able to survive with a "Handicap" will have better fit genes.
The handicap indicates and honest communicator that the male has good genes.
69
Who proposed the idea of runaway sexual selection?
Ronald Fischer.
70
The idea that a female preference may evolve and then her offspring males will have that trait and daughters will learn to prefer the trait?
Run away sexual selection proposed by Ronald Fischer. this will lead to extremes in male traits.
The males will become preferred and produce more offspring with the trait or the preference for that trait.
71
In betta fish, the male which have a dot at the their tail will have a better reproductive fitness. it has been found that the prey of these fish resemble this dot. What is this an example of?
Sensory bias. Because the females are already attracted to prey which look like the red dot they are more likely to approach these males.
Bower birds do this with color blue in their nests, the females prefer to eat blue grapes.
72
When females are able to store and preferentially choose sperm paternity?
Cryptic female choice.
73
Who defined sexual conflict?
Parker in 1979
74
An antagonistic co-evolution to a males sexual morphology which is deleterious to the female. this will evolve to the point of max reproductive success.
Sexual Conflict.
An example of this is in some bugs the males mating damages the health of the female, the females which develop traits which limit the number of copulations will live and produce offspring.
Males will then probably evolve some response to this and vice versa.
75
Who came up with idea that females almost always invest more into producing offspring than males, so they will almost always be the resources competed over?
A.J. Batman.
76
Who theorized that the gender which provides more parental investment will become the limiting resource?
R.A. Trivers.
77
Specific traits in a male that a female prefers snd serve as "good gene" models?
Indicator mechanism.
78
Any parental expenditure which benefits offsprings at a cost to the parents.
Parental investment.
79
What are the two decisions of parental investment?
- How much of their own resources should go towards reproduction Vs. Their own needs
- How those resources/ investments should be allocated among offspring.
80
Parental Behaviors which have an immediate physical effect on the offspring and their survival.
Direct Parental Care.
EX: Feeding, maintaining nest, caring for eggs.
81
Parental behaviors which do not have an immediate physical effect on the offspring.
Indirect Parental Care.
Usually done while parents are away from offspring or before offspring are born.
EX: Building nest, establishing territory, defending resources, defending young from predators, male caring for pregnant female.
82
What are the three evolutionary conflicts of parent investment between family members.
- Evolutionary interests between males and females.
- Intrabrood conflict (Within same brood.)
- Interbrood conflict (Members of different broods.)
83
Parental invest theory is a branch of what?
Life history Theory.
84
Who argued the parental investment between the sexes should be equal?
Fisher (1930).
85
Who expanded the concept of parental investment to include costs to any other component of parental fitness?
Clutton and brock.
86
Who's idea was it that the sex which invests more time into parental investment will be more discriminating in mating and will be competed for?
Robert Trivers.
87
Intrabrood conflict AKA:
Sibling rivalry.
88
What is it called when intrabrood conflict reaches the level of murder?
Siblicide.
89
Nazca Boobies are known for what?
Obligate siblicide, when two eggs are laid the one which hatches first will push the other out of the nest. if they both hatch the older sibling will still do this.
90
What is it called when siblicide only occurs situationally?
Facultative siblicide.
91
How much resources should be invested into the current litter at the cost of providing for future litters is an example of what conflict?
Interbrood conflict.
Also includes when the lifetime reproductive success of the parents is lowered.
92
What is the conflict of Galapagos fur seals?
interbrood conflict. These seals pups may ween up to two years if environmental conditions are poor. Frequently ~23% of pups are born to a family with an already sucking pup. If conditions are good, the pup will likely wean and the new pup lives. If bad conditions then the new pup will be starved from suckling and many die within the first month.
93
How does life history affect the parental investment of broods?
In shorter lives species parents will put more investment into a singular brood as it may be the only one they have. In longer lived species they will likely partition their resources.
94
RV=?
Current reproduction + residual reproductive value.
RV= Total Reproductive value.
95
What is residual reproductive value?
The individuals future reproduction through its investment in growth and survivorship.
96
Over investment in current reproduction lowers what?
Residual reproductive value. AKA future ability to have more offspring and may lead to a shorter lifespan.
97
Male blue gill guard their young. How does this behavior change based on exposure to sneaker males?
Sneaker males may have affect paternity. Due to the un/ lack of certainty of paternity the blue gills with more exposure to sneaker males were found to be less aggressive guarding the young Vs. those with less exposure.
98
When parents have different investment for male Vs. Female offspring?
Sex Allocation.
99
What type of species in sex allocation limited to?
Dioecious Species (Those having only two consistent lifetime genders.)
100
What are the two means of sex allocation?
- Increased production of one gender.
- Increased parental investment in one gender.
101
Why do birds have such a high incidence of biparental care?
This is because once the egg is laid both the female or male can just as easily incubate the egg. The male participating in prenatal care makes them more likely to participate as a parent of the young.
102
Why do mammals have so much parental care only from the female species?
Since the mammals have pre-natal care in the womb there is not direct prenatal care from the male, therefore he is not likely to participate as a parent.
103
What two classes of animals have the highest incidence of no parental care?
Teleosts and anurans. This is likely because they practice external fertilization and neither parent does much towards prenatal care.
However this is not 100% chondrichythyes all practice internal fertilization, but show no parental care.
104
Population growth strategy where the species focuses on producing as many young as possible with little to no parental investment.
R-Selection.
105
Animals with a great deal of predation which would not be able to defend their young from predators are better off using which population growth tactic?
R-selection. Think sea turtles- they can't fend off their young from their predators so they produce as many as possible with prenatal resources to be sufficient as birth with no parental investment. (Defense mechanisms would be wasted energy.)
106
Reproductive strategy where a species will have fewer young but higher parental investment leading to higher survivability and longer lifespan of young.
K-selection.
107
Species which are able to defend their young from predation will benefit from which reproductive strategy?
K-selection. Parental investment in successful defense of young will increase both the young and parent's fitness level.
108
Who's theory regarding the mate that does the parental investment will be the sought after mate is also open to role reversal?
Robert Trivers.
109
Robert Triver's theory is that the mate which provides more parental investment will be less available to mating and therefore the "sought after" sex. What two scenarios does this lead?
- The operational sex ratio: The ratio of sexually active males to sexually available females.
- Potential reproductive rate: The maximum number of offspring a parent can produce per unit of time.
110
Bird which the male does majority of the parental investment and therefore is the "sought after" mate?
Northern Jacana.
The females will compete for mates, they will have defensive territories of harem males and will even practice infanticide when they take over another female jacana's territory.
111
Manipulation of hosts individuals to raise and rear the young of the brood parasite.
Brood parasitism. May be either intra or inter specific.
112
What does brood parasitism reduce?
While is raise the fitness of the parasite it will decrease the reproductive fitness of the parents raising the parasite.
113
What is different about inter Vs intra specific brood parasites?
intraspecific brood parasites may build their own nest as well and rely more heavily on parasitism when nests are hard to obtain/ build.
Interspecific brood parasites are obligate parasites and are unable to build their own nests.
114
What are two traits of brood parasites young that assist in this strategy?
The parasite eggs typically resemble to nesters eggs.
The parasite eggs will hatch earlier giving them a head start to outcompete the other eggs. The parasite will usually eat the others or kick the eggs out of the nest.
115
One male and female mating pair?
Monogamy
May include cheating or extra pair copulations.
116
Two types of polygamy?
Polygyny & polyandry
117
Multiple male partners to one female?
Polyandry.
118
Multiple female partners to one male?
Polygyny.
119
Two or males with an exclusive relationship to two or more females?
Polygynandry.
120
In vertebrate species the number of males is usually more or less than females?
Less.
121
Brood care in polyandry?
Usually biparental care.
122
Brood care in polygyny?
usually if low number of female the male will stay with one the female and the rest are on their own.
If large amount of females- male likely won't stay at all.
123
Brood care in polgnynandry?
Each male will likely stay with each female.
If all the males and female work together this is termed communal breeding.
124
When the males and females of a species raise their young in groups together?
Communal breeding.
125
What are the three benefits of monogamy to the male?
1. Male biparental investment may increase his own reproductive fitness.
2. when females are sparse monogamy ensure the male will at least get to mate with one female.
3. easier to guard only one female.
126
Monogamy which implies only living together and sharing territory. engage in behavior of bonded pairs.
Social monogamy. This does not imply fidelity to one partner.
usually will have extra copulatory pairs.
127
Exclusive sexual relationship between male and female?
sexual monogamy.
This is rare.
128
A genetic analyses of offspring confirmed a female male pari only mate with each other?
Genetic monogamy.
129
what are befits and costs of extra pair mating in males?
Increases their reproductive fitness.
Cost to finding a receptive female
Cost to the female at home possibly cheating too.
130
what are befits and costs of extra pair mating in females?
Not really any cost.
Benefits:
- poss extra assist in rearing young/ defending nest.
- poss gain of more resources like food/ spermatophores/ nupital gifts.
-may need more than one males sperm to fertilize all eggs.
- may increase quality of genes from "sexier" birds that wouldn't stick around for parental care.
- may reduce chances of inbreeding.
131
What mating system does the wood mouse practice?
Polygyny: This leads to increased competition among males, but can benefit a more dominant male with more breeding opportunities.
Lots of energy use in this so usually no paternal parental investment.
132
Benefits of polygyny?
- Benefit a more dominant male with more breeding opportunities.
Lots of energy use in this so usually no paternal parental investment.
- Males that have territory have stronger genes "sexy son hypothesis."
- Males control territories with better resources to get the females.
133
Costs of polygyny?
- Cost to male: unguarded females can be mated by other mice.
- Costs in defending breeding territory.
- Cost of females having all parental investment.
- Cost of females having to share resources in a males territory.
- Cost of increased predation in known breeding area.
134
Theory which explains how females may choose mates with stronger/ better genes to produce male young with those genes to pass on.
"Sexy Son Hypothesis."
Idea is that by doing this the females are also increasing their indirect fitness.
135
What two benefits are part of the polygyny threshold hypothesis?
- Males which can defend territories show they have better genes they can pass on, increasing a females indirect fitness
- Males defend territories with better resources that are passed onto his females.
136
theory that if A female will mate with an already mated male if the benefit of accessing his "high-quality" territory outweigh the costs of sharing with other females?
Polygyny Threshold Hypothesis.
137
polygyny where the males herds the females into clusters which are easier to defend?
Female Defense Polygyny.
Elephant & Fur seals.
138
polygyny where the males defend a territory that has what the female needs for reproduction?
Resource defense Polygyny. Think of the cichlids which collect and guard shells the females need to lay their eggs in.
139
A gathering of males each on their own little territory practicing competitive mating displays.
Lek Defense Polygyny.
Each little territory is called a Lek.
May include some sparring etc. Females will choose a lek, mate, then leave. better leks attract more females.
140
Many females associated with one dominant male?
Harem.
141
What is called when the non- dominant males of a species that participates in harems forms their own little boy band?
Bachelor bands/ groups.
142
How does polyandry affect population size?
Reduces it.
143
What are the four explanations for polyandry?
- more likely a female will reproduce/ ensure reproductive success.
- encourages post copulatory sperm competition.
- Multiple sperm lines may give rise to different offspring (Think castes of bees) this benefits the population.
- nupital gifts benefit female and offspring.
- Unknown paternity reduces poss of infanticide.
144
Lions generally will have a dominant male and a harem of females, however when their territory becomes large and they have many females another male may join the pride to help defend the territory and have access to females as well. What is this?
polygynandry.
Advantages:
- Greater gene diversity
- Less male competition
- Greater protection and nurturing of young.
145
What is the mating style of bonobos?
Promiscuous/ polygynandry.
146
What is the practice of casual sex with multiple partners?
Promiscuity.
147
transfer of information from a sender to a receiver?
Communication.
Also can be defined as any message which alters the future behavior of the receiver.
148
What are the three components of communication?
Sender, Message, receiver.
149
Type of communication where if the message can be seen so can the receiver?
Visual.
Advantageous to contacting a mate and localization of the sender.
Can send many varieties of messages and may alter the signal based on proximity to receiver.
150
What kind of message travels at the speed of light?
Visual.
151
What time of day will a nocturnal animal use visual communication?
At dawn or dusk when there is light so the message is actually seen.
152
What are the two disadvantages of visual communication?
- Receiver and sender must be in proximity to each other.
- The message is easily blocked by environmental conditions.
153
What form of communication travels over the greatest distance?
Auditory/ Audition.
Especially true in water- The density of the atoms allows for better transfer of energy Vs air.
154
Pros and cons of auditory?
Pros:
Not as easily blocked by environment, can still be or distorted.
Can be complex and responsive.
Stops when the sender stops.
Cons:
Harder to localize sender con for mating/ pro for warning signaling.
155
Producing sound by rubbing together certain body parts?
Stridulation.
Auditory communication.
156
in Stridulation, there are two moving parts. A part with one ridge/ lip which moves along a many ribbed/ many ridges part to produce sound. What are these parts called?
One ridge: Plectrum.
Many: Stridulitrum.
157
High frequency sounds beyond/ above the human hearing range?
Ultrasounds.
158
low frequency sounds below the human hearing range?
Infrasounds.
159
Auditory communication using seismic signals?
Substrate vibrations.
Think of the kangaroo rat thumping.
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What are the three natures of chemical communication?
olfactory, pheromonal, gustatory (taste).
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What is the best medium for chemical communicating nature of Gustatory?
(Taste) Water.
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What two natures of chemical communication travel best in air?
Olfaction and pheromonal.
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What is the slowest communication signal?
Chemical communication, but they are also the longest lasting.
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what is the longest lasting communication signal?
Chemical communication.
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What is one major con of chemical communication?
Can be tracked by predators.
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Detection of a chemical signal?
Chemoreception.
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Detection of chemical signals through contact?
Contact Chemoreception.
Ants use this determine if an ant is a member of the colony.
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What organ is commonly used to detect scent pheromones?
Vomeronasal organ.
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Act some animals do that helps the scented air reach their vomeronasal organ, usually shown by way of lip lifting ei.. Stank face?
Flehmen response.
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A group of individuals at one location?
An aggregation of individuals.
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How do pheromones lead to aggregation?
Usually male pheromones called sex attractants will attract both genders forming and aggregation.
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Communication by a species where they release a substance when attacked by a predator and alerts other conspecifics?
Alarm.
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Pheromones which cause in alteration in the behavior of the recipient?
Releaser.
May be used for mating purposes.
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Pheromones which trigger a change of developmental events?
Primer.
Some mammals release mammary pheromones which trigger nursing in the young.
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Pheromones which trigger short term changes and may activate a response?
Signal Pheromones.
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Pheromones which mark the boundaries of an individuals territory?
Territorial Pheromones.
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Pheromones which are used set up a trail so that other conspecifics may find their way?
Trail Pheromones.
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Pheromones which indicate the individuals availability for breeding?
Sex Pheromones.
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Pheromones which indicate the individuals identity?
Information Pheromones.
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Communication method with short distance, easy to locate sender, functions in dark, can go around obstacles, low durability, and low complexity?
Touch communication.
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Communication Type?
Short distance
Avoid obstacles
easy to locate sender
rapid speed
low range of duration
low complexity
Electrical communication.
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What are the two teleost groups which independently evolved electrical communication?
Gymnotiforms and Mormyriforms.
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Many animals will limit to just one type of communication.
True/ False?
FALSE.
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An individual is using multimodal communication and puts out signals where both will attract a mate to her. What kind of communication is this?
Same response different modes of communication?
= Repetitive messages.
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An individual is communicating mulitmodal, they are indicating territorial pheromones and also calling out for a mate, what kind of communication is this?
Different responses to different forms of communication?
= Non-repetitive messages.
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What is one draw back of multimodal communication?
Uses more energy.
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What is likely to occur in species that are in the same area and look alike?
They will develop more complex communication to differentiate themselves.
Chiffchaff and yellow warbler have different mating calls, but look almost the same.
Evolution favors mating with the correct species and sex.
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Evolution usually results in chemical or auditory mate calling/ attraction. Why?
-Ease of sender localization/ recognition.
- Longer distances= more mating opportunities.
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What are four things communication in mating allows for?
- Identification of conspecific & opposite sex.
- Assessment for reproductive quality.
- Coordination of physiology to increase efficacy.
- establishment and maintenance of pair bonds.
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What type of characteristic commonly plays a role in communication of finding a potential mate?
Secondary Sex Characteristics.
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What is a behavior associated with mate assessment?
Courtship.
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What is a behavior associated with coordination of physiology to increase sex efficacy?
Courtship. For example in pigs there is a specific stance and posture the male and female do to mate and the grunts the male make during mating stimulate ovulation in the female.
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What type of relation ship does pair bonding usually occur?
Monogamous relationships.
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Grooming used to maintain social bonds?
Social Grooming. Usually found in primates. also done in horses. Can be used as reconciliation and conflict resolution.
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What do bonobos use in maintenance of pair bonds?
Sex.
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An antipredator adaptation referring to various signals emitted by social animals in response to danger?
Alarm signal communication.
Usually provoke flight response.
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When an alarm call does not signal flight and instead signals fight?
Mobbing Call.
The Great Tit uses an alarm signal to alert other tits to harass their perched predators away, when predators are in flight they will flee.
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Conflict communication that may lead to a fight, usually signals aggression?
Agonistic messages communication.
Usually has a matched submission display that will end the message and terminate the aggressive episode.
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Display of conflict communication that the dominant males shows it is okay with the presence of the other animal?
Affilative display.
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How does a bee communicate to the hive there is nearby food? Less than 35m?
Using the round dance. This is a circular dance used when the bee returns to the hive.
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Who first translated the waggle dance?
Karl Von Frisch.
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Figure 8 dance done by the honeybee?
The waggle dance. This communicates food further from the hive >35m.
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What do honey bees use as a directional cue?
The sun.
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A bee waggle dances to the right up on the vertical honey comb at a 45º angle. What does this mean?
The food is 45º degrees to the right from the angle of the sun.
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What is the adjustment rate due to the movement of the sun in honey bees?
15º for every hour.
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in the waggle dance if the bee does a lot of waggles during the waggle portion what does that mean?
The food is further away.
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In the waggle dance if the bee does lots of bussing during the straight leg of the dance what does that mean?
The food is further away.
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When the receiver and sender have the same goal the signal will be?
Honest.
EX: Hungry baby birds want to be fed and parents want to take care of their offspring.
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When a signal cannot be faked it will be?
Honest.
EX: Male blue tits with more yellow coloration indicate it's good health and is proportional to it's body score.
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When the signal is expensive to produce it will likely be?
Honest.
"Handicap" features indicate the health of individual and are costly to have.
- Cost may also involve the receivers response, if a male presents himself as stronger opponent than he is he may get into a fight he cannot handle.
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Who hypothesized that honest signals will be favored when the signal is costly to the sender?
Amotz Zahavi.
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In polistes wasps the sender of a signal is easily recognizable by facial markings, when a sender is dishonest they are "punished" via increased aggression. What will this favor?
Honest signals.
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When the sender and receiver have different goals what will the signal be?
Dishonest. This works best when the sender will not be recognized again. This is sometimes achieved by eating the animal attracted by the signal- such as in lighting bugs eating the males of other lighting bugs using a mating light display to attract them.
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What does it mean when the signal sent out is costly to receive or asses the by the receiver?
This means the signal will likely be dishonest but the chances of being wrong are too great for the receiver.
EX: Dominance Bluffs.
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What are the two different approaches to the evolutionary origin of signals?
- Ritualization: When beginning signals become more pronounced/ unambiguous over time leading to specific communication. (Ethologists.)
- Receiver bias mechanisms: Focuses on the characteristics of the receiver more so than the sender. (Comparative psychologists.)
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What are the raw material for initiating a Ritualization evolution? According to who?
Ethologists.
Intention Movements
Displacement activities.
Autonomic responses.
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Behavior derived from locomotary movement usually that indicates the beginning of an action. That then gets hijacked into a specific type of communication with more unmistakable signals?
Intention Movements made into a Ritualized behavior.
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How might the rattlesnake tail have evolved?
Though ritualization of intention movements. The tails of many animals in hiding will move a lot due to nervous excitation. The rattlesnake is very deadly however so if an animal knows one is nearby it will avoid it- learning to increasing both's fitness and being selected for.
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When an animals experience a high drive for two or more activities or is prevented from doing one high drive activity and winds of doing some other self soothing behavior that is unrelated such as grooming?
Displacement behavior.
This has evolve by way of ritualization into specific modes of communication. some involved in mating in some duck species "Mock Preening"
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A response which is realized by the ANS and is involuntary. EX: Eye dilation and constriction, blushing.
Autonomic responses.
These can also be manipulated into ritualization behavior evolution, such as in the male flame bower birds which uses pupil constriction and dilation in its mating dance.
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When a ritualized behavior no longer has any other meaning and its origin is no longer used. it is now only used in communication.
Emancipation.
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What are the evolutionary tactics for Receiver bias mechanisms to evolve according to comparative psychologists?
- Sensory Bias: When the animal already has bias towards a certain trait and signal evolves according to this trait.
- Sensory Drive: When the receiver's characteristics are shaped by the environment and this affect the signal.
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Why is audition communication more common in the rain forest?
It has lots of visual features that make it hard to see one specific visual signal.
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if a signal is directed at a conspecific what role may be taking place?
Receiver bias mechanisms.
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How might predators affect a signal?
if the signal can be exploited by predators the signals is pushed to evolve and modify itself. EX: The bugs which get eaten by the mimic will not pass on the stupid traits that caused them to get eaten by this signal and may lead to a rise of a specialized/ modified signal.
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Behavior which is intended to inflict noxious stimulation or destruction of another?
Aggression.
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What hormone is linked to more aggression within an individual?
Testosterone.
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Hypothesis which outlines the relationship between testosterone and aggression in mating contexts in many species?
The Challenge hypothesis.
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What is the most abundant circulating androgen hormone?
Dehydroepiandrosterone.
Dehydro-epi-andro-sterone.
DHEA.
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What is an androgen?
A male sex hormone.
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What hormone regulate aggression during and not during the breeding season?
Breeding: Gonadal (Testosterone.)
Not: Non-Gonadal Dehydroepiandrosterone.
(These will not be effected via neutering and aggression because of them will be unchanged.)
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Why do birds maintain territoriality outside of the breeding season?
Dehydroepiandrosterone hormone is higher outside of the breeding season to maintain this.
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What glucocorticoid promotes aggressive behavior?
Corticosterone. Low levels lead to more aggression.
dramatic drops lead to decreased aggression, chronic lowering= increased aggression.
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What type of chemical/ steroid is associated with maintaining social hierarchy?
Glucocorticoids.
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What glucocorticoid is linked to a lowered fear/ stress response and leads to more dominant behavior?
Cortisol.
Lower levels= More Dom
Proactive aggression= Low cortisol.
Reactive Aggression= High Cortisol.
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Any social behavior related to fighting but not actually fighting. Think more threats/ displays.
Agonistic behavior.
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What does agonistic behavior apply to?
Only intraspecific/ Conspecific.
Fighting related behavior.
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What is the most common form of agonistic behavior?
Ritualistic/ Display Behaviors.
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what are the three most common agonistic interactions?
Threat
Agonistic Fighting
Submission.
These fall outside the narrow definition of aggression.
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Any behavior that implies hostility or intent to attack another?
Threat behaviors.
Last step before fighting. Does not involve contact.
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What are the three recipient outcomes of a threat display?
- Submission
- Display of physical attributes.
- Fight.
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form of aggression which escalates from an indecisive threat display?
Agonistic Fighting.
Usually will involve some restraint.
EX: Black mamba fighting will involve beating each others heads down but they will not inject each other with venom.
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What are the two conditions which will lead to increased agonistic fighting?
- Individuals of the same Size/ Strength.
- When the fight is over a resource necessary for reproductive success or survival.
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An individual indicating it will not attack or challenge a dominant rival via posturing?
Submission.
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What type of submissive behavior does the bearded dragon show, how is this beneficial?
The submissive beardie will wave with one front leg in a circular motion. This is beneficial to avoid injury in a fight.
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what are three factors that are assessed in possible agonistic fighting/ displays?
- Fighting Ability
- Fighting Experience
- Value of the disputed resource. (Males holding a territory will fight harder to keep it than to gain new territory.)
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what kind of organization is likely to occur if species which have nonspecific conflicts over resources and mating opportunities?
A Dominance Social Hierarchy.
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What is the subordinate. Submissive individual?
The individual which will be dominated by the dominant individual.
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What is the dominance hierarchy within the moderate species dependent on?
The ability of the queen to suppress critical reproductive hormones in male and female sub-dominates.
The queen has very high levels of testosterone which allows for this extreme dominance.
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Glucocorticoids AKA:
Stress Hormones produced by the adrenal glands and lead to a fight or flight response.
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What are the benefits of being subordinate instead of dominant?
Less expenditure on aggression/ fighting/ defense/ injury.
They may be able to gain mating opportunities otherwise restricted through alternate mating strategies, using less energy.
They can sometimes change their status.
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Dominant organisms in a social hierarchy get benefits such as reproductive access and first access to resources, etc. What are the cons of being dominant?
Incurring energy costs of fighting/ defense/ injury.
Higher glucocorticoid levels lead to a variety of health problems as well such as: Osteoporosis, immunosuppression, increased appetite due energy needs, etc.
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An area in which an animal carries out most of it's normal actives?
What is the central area where it spends most of it's time?
Home Range.
Spends most of its time in the Core Area.
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How do animals usually go about with overlapping home ranges and core areas?
Usually in a home range the animals will just avoid each other. However in a core area it is more likely the animal will defend the territory.
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Any sociographical area than an animal consistently defends against conspecifics and possibly even other species.
The ethology term territory.
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An animals which defends a sociographical ares is referred to as what?
Territorial.
Territoriality is not a fixed characteristic, some robins defend as a pair during breeding season and individually out of season.
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What kind of territory is required of larger solitary or paired carnivores?
An extensive protected area, the only time they are not territorial is when there a glut of food ie: they are eating.
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What are the three determining values of holding a territory?
- Resource abundance: favored when resources are moderately abundant but not too abundant.
- Resource distribution: Favored when the recourse is moderately aggregated.
- Intruder Pressure: # of individuals willing to compete, too many will be a waste in energy defense.
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How is territory size determined?
The benefits of holding a territory in that size Vs. Costs of defending that territory.
This is called Economics of Territory Size.
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What are the four ways to increase the overall fitness gained by holding a territory?
- Banding together to share (Usually has unequal social hierarchies.)
- Choosing a territory easier to defend.
- Being alert to warning signals by neighboring territories.
- Well marked territories are less likely to be invaded.
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