Exam 3 Flashcards
(213 cards)
1
Q
nervous regulation
A
rapid response which has a short duration and a highly localized affect
2
Q
hormonal regulation
A
slower to mount a response, long duration, and more systematic affect
3
Q
paracrine
A
local signals
-delta cells in islets of langerhans in the pancreas
4
Q
exocrine
A
ducted glands
-sweat and mucus
5
Q
endocrine
A
ductless gland
-thyroid and adrenal
6
Q
delta cells in the islets of langerhans
A
release somatostatin which shuts down the releasing of insulin and glucagon in alpha cells
7
Q
neurotransmitters
A
a chemical messenger that carries a signal from one neuron to another cell/neuron across a synapse
8
Q
hormone
A
chemical messenger that carries a signal from one cell to another via blood
9
Q
pheromone
A
a chemical messenger, a smell, that carries a signal between individuals
10
Q
components of a negative feedback regulatory system
A
monitor- compare actual conditions with a step point
channel- signal conduction (endocrine uses blood, nervous uses neuron’s axons)
effector-cause a response (changes in the actual direction of the set point)
11
Q
Thyroid glands
A
- parathyroid on thyroid in throat
- as people get older, thymus gets smaller
- thymus produces T cells
- highest uptake of iodine
12
Q
pituitary gland
A
neurohypophysis- origin as out pocketing of the brain
adenohypophysis- origin as an out pocketing of the roof of the mouth
-hypothalamus controls both
13
Q
pancreas
A
has all exocrine glands except islets of langerhans
14
Q
peptide steroids
A
insulin- 51 amino acids
glucagon- even larger
vasopressin- 9 amino acids
15
Q
modified amino acids
A
- tyrosine can be modified to make epinephrine and thyroxine (T4; add second phenyl group)
- aka added as a catecholamine
16
Q
modified steroid
A
cholesterol (steroid) can make cortisol (hydrocortisone), estradiol (17beta), and testosterone
-testosterone, estrogen, progesterone, cortisol, and aldosterone
17
Q
cyclic fatty acids
A
prostaglandins
-F-1alpha or PGF-1alpha
18
Q
omega-7 fatty acid
A
-first true fatty acid hormone (aka palmitoleate)
-source is liver and fat cells
-stimulates muscle to respond more strongly to insulin
-prevents fat build up in liver
-decreases inflammatory signals from fat cells
Typically too flexible??
19
Q
kinetic effects of hormones
A
affect secretions of other glands, muscle contraction, and pigment movement
-oxcytocin, melanocyte SH, thyroid SH
20
Q
metabolic effects of hormones
A
affect aerobic respiration rate, carbo/protein balance for energy, and electrolyte/H2O balance
-thyroxin, growth hormones, cortisol
21
Q
morphogenetic effects of hormones
A
affect growth, regeneration, metamorphosis, and sexual development
-growth hormone, luteinizing hormone, thyroxine (in frog metamorphisis)
22
Q
behavioral effects of hormones
A
sensitization to particular stimuli and affect developing nervous system
-epinephrine, omega 7 (both sensitize tissues to other signals)
23
Q
amplification cascade using cAMP
A
hormone (epinephrine of glucagon)will activate adenylate cyclase via a G protein
- adenylate cyclase uses ATP to make cAMP (cAMP removes regulator/inhibitor from PKA and inhibits glucagon synthetase)
- PKA phosphorylates/activates phosphorylase kinase
- phos kinase adds a phosphate to phosphorylase b (making phosphorylase a)
- phosphorylase a cleaves glucose fro glycogen making glucose-1-p
- G-1P to G-6-P by PGM and G-6-P to glucose by hexose phosphatase
24
Q
cAMP
A
activates the glycogenolytic pathway and inhibits glycogen synthsis pathway
-both effects are by activating PKA
25
anterior pituitary
- connected to hypothalamus via small portal vein (hypothalamohypophysial portal vein)
- produces and releases 7 hormones based on hormones (Releasing and Inhibiting factors) from hypothalamus
26
posterior pituitatry
- stores two hormones produced by hypothalamus
- releases each on neural signals from hypothalamus
- transported through axons
- vasopressin (ADH) and oxytocin
27
hypothalamus
- secretes releasing or inhibiting hormones into blood capillaries
- part of nervous and endocrine system
- delivered by hypothalamohypophysial portal veins
- each regulates the secretion of a specific anterior pituitary hormone
- neuron release signal into primary capillary-> portal venules-> anterior pituitary->second capillary bed
28
7 hormones in anterior pituitary
- Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
- adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
- Growth hormone (GH)
- gonadotropic hormones- in male and female but do different things (follicle stimulating hormone FSH, luteinizing hormone LH)
- prolactin- affect mammary glands (PR/PRL)
- melanocyte stimulating hormones- affect melanocytes in amphibians (MSH)
29
oxytocin
affects muscles of uterus and mammary gland
- uterine contractions
- milk let down in nursing
30
Vasopressin/antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
kidney tubules
- hormone released due to higher K and Na concentration
- changes membrane potential and fluid osmolality-hypothalamus causes posterior pituitary to release ADH
- decrease in urine production via increased permeability to water in collecting debt membranes (involves increased density of aquaporin)
31
Releasing and inhibitory factors
```
metabolic
-TSH- releasing
-GH- releasing and inhibiting
-ACTH- releasing
gonadotropins
-LH- releasing
-FSH- releasing
other
-MSH- releasing
-PL- releasing and inhibiting
```
32
Growth hormone
- somatotropin
- polypeptide hormone
- stimulates growth and reproduction
- bones and muscles
33
robert wadlow
never stopped growing
| -GH
34
acromegaly
restarting GH expression in adults
- face changes shape
- fingers elongate
35
thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
causes the thyroid gland to produce 2 thyroxine hormones
- triiodothyronine (T3)
- tetraidothyronine- better in metabolism but gets changed to T3 (T4)
- glycoprotein
36
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
- circadian rhythm
- stimulates cortex of the adrenal gland
- boosts the synthesis of corticosteroids (glucocorticoids)
- cortex also produces mineralocorticoids and sex steroids/androgens (only important in the onset of puberty) that are not affected by ACTH
37
gonadotropins
- protein hormones secreted by gonadotropic cells of the anterior pituitary gland of vertebrates
- stimulate metabolic activity in gonads
38
Luteinizing hormone
- tiggers ovulation and affects corpus luetum in females
| - testosterone in males
39
follicle stimulating hormone
females: stimulates the maturation of ovarian follicles to graafian follicles
males: enhances production of androgen-binding protein by the sertoli cells of the testes and is critical for spermatogenisis
40
Hormones structures
- most are dipeptide
- LH, FSH, TSH, and hCG have the same alpha subunits, beta subunits make them differ
- these hormones are glycoproteins
41
MSH in amphibians and reptiles
- stimulate the production and release of melanin by melanocytes
- in mammals MSH suppresses appetite with CCK and GIP
42
prolactin
stimulates mammary glands to produce milk
| -some newborn males produce witches milk
43
neurons cell body
produces ADH and releases it from posterior pituitary in response to neural stimulation
-end of axon
44
thyroid regulation
- set point of .0008 mg% of T3 and T4
| - helps control our body temp; pyrogens reset temp to higher
45
thyroid effects
- helps set children growth rates
| - sets body's basal metabolic rate (oxidative respiration
46
thyroxine
affects metamorphisis in amphibians:
- hypothalamus stimulates adenohypophysis for TSH in pre
- TSH stimulates thyroid for thyroxine in pro
-affects water and salt balance in fish
47
fish reproduction
- salmon reproduce in freshwater and grow in salt (anadromous)
- american eel reproduce in salt water and grow in fresh (catadromous)
48
thyroid diseases
- not enough iodine = goiter
| - hyperthyroidism (graves disease)- causes goiters
49
plasma calcium regulation
- thyroid gland secretes calcitonin which stimulates Ca ions into bone via osteocytes called osteoblasts; Ca out of blood stream is used to build bone
- parathyroid gland secretes PTH which causes Ca mobilization via osteocytes called osteoclasts and affects kidney
50
effects of PTH
- caused by low Ca2 in blood
- increased absorption of Ca in intestines, osteoporosis
- kidney reabsorb Ca2 and excrete PO4
- osteoclasts absorb Ca and excrete Ca2
- increase Ca2
51
adrenal gland
- outer=cortex, inner=medulla
- regulation of cortex (50 hormones)
- sensors and hormones that regulate cortex
- glucocoticoids- cortisol
- mineralcorticoid from cortex- aldosterone
- sex hormones
- neural regulation of medulla (epinephrine and nor-epinephrine)
52
cortisol
- glucose homeostasis
- increases blood glucose level by inhibiting other cells from pulling glucose off of blood stream (epinephrine does too)
- high levels can cause depression; anti depression drugs block cortisol receptors
53
aldosterone
- acts on kidney to reabsorb Na and water out of distal tubule of nephron to produce less urine (active)
- reabsorbtion is controlled by renin from JGA, angiotensin 1 and 2
- causes secretion of K into distal tubule of nephron
- (adrenal cortex mineralcorticoid)
54
increased concentration of Na
JGA releases more renin which produces angiotensin 1 from the liver secreted blood protein angiotensinogen
55
ACE
- converts angiotensin 1 to angiotensin 2
- angiotensin 2 causes vasoconstriction and increases adrenal cortex release of aldosterone
- aldosterone decreases urine production via increased sodium
56
sex hormones
-androgens from adrenal gland move to gonads and jump start puberty
57
medulla of adrenal
epinephrine and nor-epinephrine
| -fight or flight
58
epinephrine
- adrenaline
- causes increase in blood flow by increased rate of contractions and increase pressure in periphery via beta receptors in arterioles
- increases heart rate
- mobilize fat for energy
- enhance supply of oxygen and energy giving compounds
59
nor-epinephrine
causes vasoconstriction in periphery (reduced flow) via alpha receptors in arterioles and increases stoke volume (per contraction)
60
reproduction
XX= ovary (no SRY)
XY= testis (SRY for puberty)
-7th week SRY is produced
61
male reproduction
1. LH targets the interstitial cells between seminiferous tubules or the seritoli cells
2. LH tells leydig cells in testis -> testosterone-> secondary sex characteristics (hypothalamic response)
3. FSH tells seritoli cells -> spermogenisis-> proteins that regulate (hypothalamic control)
62
female hormonal control
1. GnRH from hypothalamus (one for FSH and one for LH)
2.FSH and LH released from anterior pituitary
LH-> progesterone
FSH-> estradiol
-estrogen and progesterone from ovary (inhibitor from ovarian granulocyte cells)
63
FSH and LH in females
FSH- stimulates growth of ovarian follicles and secretor of estradiol
LH- stimulates ovulation, conversion of remnants of ovarian graafian follicle into corpus leutem (stimulates estradiol and progesterone)
64
corpus leutem
produce and release estradiol and progesterone (negative feedback)
65
ovarian cycle
- follicular- dev. of eggs and follicle growth
- ovulation- peak of LH and FSH
- leuteal phase- follicle reminants for corpus lute which secretes hormones
66
mouse ovary
estrus - ready for implantation and high secretion
diestrus
-makes mCG instead of hCG
67
human ovary
menses- period of lots of bleeding at the beginning of the follicular stage
proliferate phase- endometrium builds and enriches blood for fetus
secretory (luteal) phase- thickened endometrium becomes secretory
68
estradiol
causes peak of LH and FSH which starts ovicular cycle
69
hCG
- when embryo implants it increases the production it first thing
- prevents menses or flow
- secreted by proto placenta (trophoblast)
- signals corpus luteum to continue progesterone production for first trimester (replaces LH influence)
- most frequently produced by a newly planted embryo in the uterus
70
start of second trimester
- placenta takes over production of estradiol and progesterone from ovaries
- many spontaneous abortions at this time
71
birth control
progesterone at lowest possible dose to inhibit ovulation by inhibiting LH release
72
Hormones for birth
- hypothalamus releases CRH to anterior pituitary which releases ACTH, which signals adrenal gland to make cortisol and in fetus DHEAS
- cortisol stimulates placenta to make prostaglandins and placenta CRH (positive feedback to adrenal gland)
- DHEAS->dhydroplandrosterone->estradiol-> estriol
- prostaglandins, estriol, and oxcytocin stimulate uterus wall
- uterus wall applies pressure
73
affect of prostaglandins, estriol, and oxytocin stimulating the uterine wall
-increased gap junctions in myometrium
-increased receptors for oxcytocin and prostaglandins
(prepares for uterus to apply pressure)
74
regulating blood glucose leves
use the hormones, insulin and glucagon, which have opposing actions
-after eating there is increased insulin production by beta cells, making glucose go into cells instead of blood
-between meals there is increased glucagon production by alpha cells, making glycogen hydrolyze to glucose
(setpoint is 80mg of glucose per 100 mL of blood)
75
melatonin
- amino acid derivative (from trp)
- produced by pineal gland
- circadian rhythm- wake/sleep, seasonal breeders (nose)
76
alleles
```
determine age at first reproduction of platyfish
-some mature at different times
-at a gene expressed in pineal gland
(melatonin)
-depends on smell too
```
77
endocrine disrupters (mimics)
dioxin, PCB, DDT (DDE)
- development, sex issues, cancer
- agonist and antagonist of hormone receptors
- ecdysone and juvenile hormone cause bigger larvae
78
kidneys
- keep the good metabolites, get rid of waste, and adjust ion concentrations and Ph
- outer layer cortex, inner layer medulla
- adrenal gland on top
79
Fresh water fish
- saltier than their surroundings so water enters their body through osmosis
- solutes tend to leave
- large glomerulus
- dont drink
- reabsorb ions using gills
- lots of dilute urine
80
salt water fish
- water leaves body through osmosis
- solutes tend to enter
- drink sea water
- excrete ions using gills
- highly concentrated urine
81
filtration
-arterial pressure forces most of fluid and dissolved materials into nephron tubules lumen or bowmans capsule
82
Kidney failure
proteins don't leave blood vessels but if they do and go into nephron then you will go into kidney failure
83
selective resorption
cells in the lining of the proximal convoluted tubule pull glucose and amino acids out of the filtrate (active transport)
- most of K and bicarbonate retained in body
- 20% Na, urea, ammonium, and uric acid kept in the filtrate
84
secretion
some waste products transported into proximal tubule of nephron, some ions (K and H) secreted into distal tubule
85
Na and Cl ions
sodium ions are actively transported out and chloride follows or vice versa
-either way salt is pumped out of ascending side of loop of Henley
86
synthesis
synthesis of waste "N" materials, including para-aminohippuric acid into proximal tubule and ammonium chloride (NH3Cl) into distal tubule
87
collecting duct
another target of hormones
- vassopressin increase urine by putting more aquaporin in
- urine becomes more concentrated
88
atrial natrouric peptide
- made and secreted from right atrium of heart
- inhibits ADH, renin, and aldosterone
- promotes vasodialation
- keeps sodium in tubule, keeps water in filtrate, make more urine
89
Kidney functions
1. catabolism of amino acids: form ammonia in liver
2. retain good metabolites (amino acids, glucose) in body
3. regulate Ph (7.4)
4. maintain normal osmotic pressure in body fluids
5. maintain correct concentrations of important ions (Na, K, Ca, HCO3, PO4) in fluids
90
blood pressure affecting kideys
High BP: kidneys increase excretion of salt and water caused by ANP, blood volume decreases
Low BP: kidneys decrease excretion of salt and water caused by aldosterone and vasopressin, blood volume increases
91
local potentials
or receptor/graded potentials
- size of change in vm is relative to stimulus intensity
- the magnitude of a local potential is proportional to the intensity of the stimuli
- more intense stimuli cause more ion channels to open or they stay open longer (greater changes in membrane potential, hyper or depolarization)
- greater voltage change -> LP signal goes further (propagate by diffusion)
- spreads by diffusion so further areas have weaker potential
- LP amplitude changes with its propagation (speed)
92
receptor stimuli
- tactive sensations, temp, pressure
- post synaptic potentials that arise from electrical (ionic) and secretory activity from other cells
- spatial relationship
- dues to opening and closing of ion channels
93
primary and secondary receptor stimuli
secondary: specialized cells that communicate to sensory cells
primary: portion of sensory neuron and cell
94
Na, K, and Cl roles in AP and LP
- depolarize (open ion channel) to start it (only Na ion channel)
- to hyperpolarize open Cl or K ion channel
95
synaptic transmission
- chemical and electrical (in gap junctions) synapses-cytoplasm
- Ca flux in bouton
96
electrical synapse (gap junctions)
involve direct cytoplasmic contact between cells through gap junctions, generally found in brain (rigid)
97
chemical synapse
released neurotransmitters diffuse across a cleft between cells, affecting ligand-gated channels on the postsynaptic membrane (also in brain)
98
synaptic transmission in chemical synapse
- action potential arrives at synaptic knob
- Ca and Na ions influx via voltage-gated ion channels
- ca-gated channels for K efflux (repolarization)
- synaptic vesicles fuse with cell membrane (Ca role)
- release of euro transmitter from presynaptic
- NT diffuses across synaptic cleft
- NT binds to its receptor on post synaptic membrane
99
2 types of chemical synapse
fast- receptor is the channel
| slow- g-protein opens channel and receptor activates G protein (intracellular messenger)
100
neurotransmitters released by synaptic vesicle (30)
- acetylcholine- released by cholergenic synapse
- dopamine- parkinsons, affects body movements
- norepinephrine- released by adrenergic synapse, filtering of a signal from one cell to next (mitochondria destroy)
- serotonin- depression, regulates sleep and emotions (affected by project and LSD)
101
NT effect on postsynaptic cell
depends on channel coupled to receptor, IPSP and EPSP
- na influx- EPSP, depolarizes and brings toward threshold
- k efflux- IPSP- hyperpolarizes
- cl influx- IPSP
102
spatial summation
IPSPs and EPSPs arrive at axonal hillic are continuously monitored by the voltage gated channels, LPs arrive from various locations (synaptic integration)
103
temporal summation
IPSPs and EPSPs arrive at axonal hill are continuously monitored by the voltage-gated channels, LPs arrive at different moments with lingering effects on local ion concentrations
104
neural integration at axonal hillic
- small EPSPs add together to bring the membrane potential closer to the threshold
- IPSPs subtract from the depolarizing affect of EPSPs
105
glutamate
the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the vertebrate CNS producing excitatory postsynaptic potentials (due to opening Na channels)
106
origin of membrane resting potential (vm)
- 70mv
- inside of cell (-) relative to outside
- sodium K pump
- ion channels
- proteins, nucleic acids
- positively charge ions in and out of cell
- neg. charge anions fixed inside cell (proteins and nucleic acid)
- electrochemical equilibrium
107
major cations
Na and K
- different permeabilities (Na is less, K is more)
- sodium high outside cell, K high inside cell
108
electrical gradient
causes ions to e attracted to ions or molecules with opposite charge
-each ion moves from high to low concetration
109
gated channels
ligand gated: ion channels that open or close in response to a messenger (neurotransmitter)
-will open and let K or Na through (ion specific)
voltage gated: membrane potential shifted enough
-threshold
(both only open for a period of time)
110
open channels
ion leak channels formless through membrane allowing constant flow of ions by simple diffusion
- K leak channel
- movement is net of 0, excess potassium held them due to proteins and nucleic acids
111
Na and K pump role
- maintains concentration gradients
- moves by ATP
- 3 Na out, 2 K in
- irrelevant to neural signals
- only important across long term, sustaining long term concentration of K and Na
- 500 ions across membrane
112
action potential
-nerve impulse on axon
| a brief reversal of electric polarization of the cell membrane of a neuron or muscle cell
113
mylienated nerves
- white matter
- lightly wrap around membrane
- action potentials have to have exposed cell membrane to occur
- will skip to nodes (saltitory conduction or rapid signal conduction)
- mylein sheaths speed up action potentials
114
voltage Na channel
- two gates
| - one open and one closed
115
action potential characteristics
1. all or none- voltage gated Na channels open completely at threshold (not above or below)
2. uniform amplitude during propagation
3. invariant- always the same number generated
116
refracting period
Na gates cannot re-open immediately after they have close
| -has 2 gates
117
nitric oxide
a gas that easily diffuse from presynaptic neuron into postsynaptic neuron
-neurotransmitter
118
ATP
a neurotransmitter for some neurons in brain
119
spinal cord
cable of neurons extending from the brain down through the backbone
- protected by vertebral column and layers of membranes (meninges)
- relays messages and functions in reflexes
120
peripheral nervous system
axons of sensory neurons enter the dorsal surface of the spinal cord and form the dorsal root of the spinal nerve
- motor axons leave from the ventral surface and form the ventral root
- cell bodies of sensory neurons are grouped together outside each level of the spinal cord in dorsal root ganglia
121
pathway
- reflex arc structure (controllable or not)
- sensor (may or may not be a part of sensory neuron)
- sensory (afferent) neuron (bring info to CNS)
- interneuron (within CNS)
- motor (efferent) neuron (signals from CNS), 1 if reflex arc and 2 if autonomic (visceral) reflex arc
- effector (often a muscle), 2nd motor neuron
122
parasympathetic nervous system
- 1st motor neurons cell body is craniosacral
- long 1st motor neuron axon, ganglion for 2nd motor neuron is on rear and large
- 2nd motor neuron (short axon) releases acetylcholine
123
sympathetic nervous system
- 1st motor neuron's (short) cell body is thoracic-lumbar (middle)
- long 2nd motor neuron axon, ganglion for 2nd motor neuron is near spinal cord
- 2nd motor neuron releases nor-epinephrine
124
knee jerk
- one of the fastest reflexes
- directly onto motor neuron in spine
- no interneuron
125
gray matter
axons coming in from periphery from dorsal root also are wrapped in myelin sheath
126
4 groupings of white matter
- 2 going to brain, 2 going from brain
| - sensory and motor up and down spinal cord
127
frog spinal cord reactions
-coordinatng response capability exists in the spinal cod
-vinegar is really obnoxious, shocks are just irritating
-when at same time both reactions are slower (evaluating)
-depolarize
(CNS still active without brain)
128
spinal cord evaluations
- evaluates the strength of input
- can control some fairly sophisticated responses
- cross communication helps ??
129
forebrain
- cerebrum-higher cognitive function
- left is language, right is spatial
- corpus callosum: connects 2 hemispheres
- hippocampus: part of limbic system, memory and emotion
- hypothalamus: controls basic drives
130
wernickes area
-speech understanding/interpretation
131
left cerebrum
controls right side motor and sensation
132
cerebral cortex
face uses huge chunk of it and hand does too
133
phantom limb phenomenon
contralateral reporting and control
134
word understanding in brain
- hearing words is middle
- seeing words is back
- speaking words is middle
- generating words is front
135
language in cerebrum
- language is on one side of the head
- other side can take over if side has transitory interruption (needs corpus callosum)
- 90% of righties and 67% of lefties have language in left hemisphere
- thats why effects of stoke aren't always the same
136
aphasia
speaking difficulties
| -very complicated
137
speaking a heard word
wrenches area- hearing vibration pattern, interprets as a set of instructions of what the word is
brocas area-decides what they said
138
speaking a written word
- recorded to back of brain through eyes
- wernickes area- pattern is recognized as letters and words and put together
- brocas area- how to say the word
- instructions sent to motor cortex
139
strokes and brain control
Right handed:
-stroke on left side: poor motor control on right side, do recognize the implications of this limitation
left handed:
-stroke on right side: poor motor control on left side, do not recognize the implications of this limitation (spatial reasoning)
140
sensory mechanisms
introception- detect stimuli arising within body (itch)
| extroception-detect stimuli arising from outside body
141
stimuli interpretation pattern
1. detection- reaches receptor cells that are specific for types of stimuli
2. transduction- stimulus converted to electrochemical signal (amplification cascade)
- receptor protein is activated
- cascade modifies intracellular second messengers
- ion channels open
- change in conductance produces a receptor current
- receptor current charges Vm=LP
3. transmission- # and/or frequency of APs conducted along axon, AP sent to brain by ganglion cells via their axons
4. interpretation of signals resides in brain, the region of brain defines its interpretation
142
3 types of receptors
chemoreceptors: taste and olfaction
mechanoreceptors: touch, hearing, and balance
energy-detecting receptors (electromagnetic, photoreceptors, and thermoreceptors): sight and temp
-taste, hearing, and sight are senses that use secondary sense organs
143
sense pathway
energy, membrane receptor, G protein, enzyme, second messenger, ion channel
144
thermoreceptor
-all in hypothalamus for blood
cold sensor- common and shallow in skin
-stimulated as temp drop, inhibited as temp is rising
warm sensor- deeper in dermis
145
pain and touch
primary sense organs
pain: free endings of sensory neurons, shallow
pressure: specialized structures at the tips of sensory neurons (deeper as they are listed:
- merckel cell, shallow
- meissener corpuscle
- ruffini corpuscle
- pacimian corpuscle, deep
146
taste
- taste buds located deep inside pits along the tongue, not limited to one kind of chemical
- receptors or microvilli
- specialized cells that make taste a secondary sense organ
- cells drip on nerve fibers which are sent to brain
- different second messengers play role in tasting things
147
olfaction
- olfactory neurons can regenerate, cranial nerve 1
- olfactory bulb has neurons that go inside nasal passages (little specialized)
- mucous layer covers exposed cilia that have reeptor protein, has to dissolve through
- primary sense organ
148
smell pathway
receptor, G protein, adenylate cyclase, converts ATP to cAMP, oopens ion channel
149
umami
- fifth taste
| - savory, related to dietary glutamate
150
taste cranial nerves
7th: sweet, salty, 1/2 sour
9th: bitter and 1/2 sour
151
hair cells
specialized secondary sense organs
- stereocilia: group of smell cilia (true cilia are independent and nose ones are a unit)
- kinocilium
- pushed to one side or another creates IPSP or EPSP
- if dissociated it drips and goes to brain
152
brain selective listening
-ignore by IPSP to offset EPSP
153
lateral line in fish
- lets fluid move in and displace the stereo cilia that are covered by cupulalgol
- detect pressure waves outside (big fish)
154
the inner ear
- round window flexes to relieve pressure
| - cilium work as unit, has exten
155
cochlea
3 fluid filled chambers, coiled
| -hearing
156
semi circular canals
have cilia, fluid filled
| -angular motion
157
pinna
outer ear, collects vibrations
158
3 bones in ear
mallet, incus, stapes- amplify it and push on oval window which flexes to relieve pressure
159
cilium in ear
work as a unit, have extensions into fluid of semicircular canals
160
endolymph
fluid in semcircular canal
161
hydrophilic hormones
- secretory vesicles secrete hormones directly into blood stream, because lipids can go through membranes
- hormones then reach membrane receptors on target cell (on membrane)
- activate enzymes (adenylate cyclase) via G proteins
- second messenger generated activates protein kinases which activate amplification (enzyme) cascades that determine response
ex: glucagon and epinehrine
162
lipophilic hormones
- same as hydrophilic
- find nuclear receptor of target cell (in cytoplasm)
- cause changes in gene regulation
- major component of blood plasma can not effectively transport these hormones without their carrier (transport proteins)
ex: estrogen and throxine
163
Ca ions
- can activate amplification cascades via calcium dependent kinases
- can change gene expression via calcitonin
- have to be released via ITP or IP3 or by an influx from extracellular fluids
- causes release of NT by presynaptic neuron
164
glycoproteins
- alpha subunits are the same and beta subunits differ
| - the protein gets made, is sent to golgi,and carbs are added
165
insects and hormones
- molting, pupation, eclosion
- neurosecretory cells, corpus circadian and altar
- prothoracic gland- PTTH and ecdysone
- nerve cord- eclosion and bursicon
- JH goes down right before it becomes an adult (high unless pupa)
166
response to bear
- hypothalamus activates sympathetic division of NS
- HR, BP, and respiration rate increase
- Adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine and nor-epinephrine
- blood flow to skeletal muscle increases, stomach contractions inhibited
167
concentration gradient
- makes ions move from high concentration to low
- Na conc. higher on outside
- K conc. higher on inside
- Cl conc. low inside since like charges repel
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saltatory conduction
rapid signaling conduction
| -goes from node to node
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reflex arc
the general flow of signals within the nervous system
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recycling NT
1. cholergenic synapse- acetylcholinesterase (also present in neuromuscular junction) breaks apart acetylcholine, inhibiting first thing, choline reabsorbed, acetylcholine is made
2. adrenergic synapse:
- COMT- enzyme adds methyl group to nor-epinephrine, making it inactive, the presynaptic cell absorbs it
- MAO- destroys NT in mitochondria
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ganglion vs nucleus
- both are clusters of cell bodies of neurons
- nuclei in brain and spinal cord
- ganglion are not
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acetylcholine
binds to receptor proteins in postsynaptic membrane
- Na ion channels; opens them
- EPSP
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glycine and GABA
- glycine is an amino acid
- IPSP
- open K or Cl channels
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neuropeptides
substance P; activated by painful stimuli
- perception of intensity depends on enkephalins and endorphins (endogenous opiates)
ex. runners high
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somatic NS
- skeletal muscle
- excitation
- single effector cell
- 1 motor neuron
- acetylcholine
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autonomic NS
- cardiac and smooth muscle, GI tract, blood vessels, airways, endocrine glands
- excitation or inhibition
- dual effector cells
- 2 motor pathways
- acetylcholine (parasympathetic) and norepinephrine (sympathetic)
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parasympathetic vs sympathetic
eyes: S dilates, P constrics
heart: S speed up, P slows down
gut: S decreases secretion (stomach) and motility (large intestine), P increases
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Brain evolution
- trend is for expanding cortical portion of cerebral hemispheres
- increases amount of cerebral cortex
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Brain lobes
Frontal- seat of intelligence
occipital- visual cortex
temporal- auditory cortex
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somatosensory cortex
interprets sensory puts from various body parts
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Primary motor cortex
generate motor response (counter lateral control)
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brocas area
speech generation
183
angular gyrus
language interpretation
184
amygdala
- part of rewards center
| - limbic system
185
thalamus
relay (routing) for sensory and motor tracts for autonomic functions
-switch controls
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midbrain
reflexes affecting eyes and ears
187
hindbrain
- controls basic functions
- medulla oblongata- basic functions, HR and breathing
- Pons- reticular activating system (waking up in the middle of the night)
- cerebellum- coordination, balance, adjusting movement
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functions assignable to regions
hearing words- middle
seeing words- back
speaking- middle high
generating- front and brokers
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orientation
deflection of stereo cilia sends signal to brain about movement/orientation relative to earth
- utricle- horizontal
- saccule-verticle
- semicircular- acceleration
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otoliths
embedded in amophous mass
191
hearing
- basilar membrane moves up and down
- high frequency causes base to vibrate
- low frequency causes end/apex to vibrate
- low frequency goes further distances
192
perfect pitch
ability to detect high and low frequency accurately
193
auditory repoting
-single hair cell sends info to both sides
dorsal cochlear nuclei: sends info side to side
ventral: up and down
194
vertebrate eye
- one retina, single lens
- lens changes shade to refocus image on reina
- glasses alter waves of light to focus image on retina
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insect eye
- compound eye: lots of lenses
- goes to optic nerve then brain (no retina)
- good at picking up movement
196
Inside the eye
- lenses flip and invert image on fovea (where greatest detail can be observed)
- parts of the eye away from macular only see light and not color
- cones detect color
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nearsighted
image is reflected in front
| -farsighted image is in back
198
rods
- detect light
- sacs of membranes
- embedded in dark pigment area
- several rods to each bipolar cell
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cones
- nucleus, sacs of membrane that detect color
- pointed away from coracoid area in back
- embedded in dark pigment area
- blue, green, red
- in fovea of macular
- each has its own bipolar cell
200
rhodopsin
light sensitive pigment in rods
- light changes their shape
- ions cannot enter discs anymore
- embedded in dark pigment area
201
convert light into membrane potential change
- G protein activate
- PDE activated
- breaks down cGMP to GMP
- gates close
202
Photoreceptors in dark
- G protein and phosphodiesters not active
- GTP -> cGMP, binds to Na channel, opens channels
- depolarizing results in driving NTs onto bipolar cells
203
Photoreceptors in light
- cis retinal to trans retinal (change in shape)
- G protein and phosphodiesters active
- cGMP to GMP
- Na ions do not enter disc
- polarized- no dripping
204
bipolar cells spontaneous depolarization
- without stimulus when light present
- NT dripping causes IPSP on polar cells, offsets depolarization
- NT dripped on ganglion cell, signal sent that there is light
- light produces signals
205
horizontal and amercing cells
refine edges where light is and is not
206
retinal organization
goal is to send info about dots of light to brains visual cortex
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hierarchical reporting
- optic nerve
- optic chiasm
- lateral geniculate nucleus
- simple cells- bars
- complex cells- orient bars of light relative to each other
- hypercomplex cells- smooths image
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upsilon cells
- special unicellular motion detectors
- in cortex
- known in cats for long time
- recently founding mokeys
209
magnetic receptors
allow birds to orient long distance migrations
| -magnets disrupt capability
210
electroreceptors
allow predatory fish to detect movement of prey
211
thermoreceptors
allows pit vipers to find endothermic (warm blooded) prey in the dark
212
3 characteristics of all sense organs
1. specific environmental stimuli
2. transduce stimuli into electrochemical signal
3. amplify stimulus to generate AP
213
senses
rely on portions of sensory neurons (primary sense organs) or on specialized cells (secondary) that relay info to a sensory neuron
