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Animal Biology > Final Exam > Flashcards

Final Exam Flashcards

1
Q

Hierarchal levels of organization

A
  1. atoms
  2. molecules
  3. macromolecules
  4. organelles
  5. cells
  6. tissues
  7. organs and organ system
  8. organism
  9. population and species
  10. communities- multiple interacting species
  11. ecosystems- community and physical environment
  12. landscape- interacting ecosystem
  13. biomes- all tropical rainforest communities
  14. biosphere- the earth
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2
Q

enzymes

A

not an organelle, but found in all eukaryotic forms of life

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3
Q

stable sodium

A

has one more proton than it has electrons

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4
Q

beta and alpha linkages

A

alpha linkages: starch and glycogen (potato and liver)
-easier to break down
beta linkages: cellulose and chitin (algae and tick)

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5
Q

proteins from the golgi get transported to their correct location due to..

A

signal molecules in or on the membranes of transport vesicles

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6
Q

secondary lysosome

A

lysosome that has fused with a phagosome

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7
Q

Red blood cells vs solution

A

hyperosmotic- shrivel
isosomotic- normal
hypoosmotic- cells swell and eventually burst

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8
Q

membrane proteins

A
  • such as pores and channels

- have hydrophobic amino acids on much of their intramembrane surface

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9
Q

disaccharides

A 
lactose= glucose and galactose
sucrose= glucose and fructose
maltose= glucose and glucose
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10
Q

Where are glycoproteins associated with the cell membrane found?

A

on the outer surface of the cell

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11
Q

macromolecules

A

carbohydrates- starch, polysacchiride, glucose
nucleic acid- nucleotides (make DNA and chromosomes)
protein- amino acid
lipids- structurally diverse

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12
Q

Elk in winter

A

have more unsaturated fatty acids (phospholipids) in the winter because they are liquid at room temperature
-so are polyunsaturated fats

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13
Q

chaperone proteins

A

proteins that help other proteins achieve their correct folding

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14
Q

What are formed in condensation reactions of their subunit components?

A

polysaccharides, polypeptides, polynucleotides, and neutral lipids

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15
Q

Where are gap junctions found?

A

neural tissue

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16
Q

polysaccharides

A

do not serve in the role of an intercellular signal molecule

-proteins, prostaglandins, sterols, and polypeptides do

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17
Q

cholesterol

A
  • steroid compound

- composed of four interconnected planar rings

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18
Q

receptors for protein hormones

A

-embedded in the cell membrane of target cells

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19
Q

microtubules

A

a cytoskeletal structure that is directly associated with cell movement via the cilia or flagellar motion eukaryotes

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20
Q

tissues

A

epithelium- covers and lines organs and cavities (secretory)
connective- cartilage, bone, blood, tendons, fat (adipose)
muscle- smooth (internal organs and uterus), skeletal (muscle), cardiac
nervous- brain and spinal cord

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21
Q

determination

A
  • involves an interaction between nuclear genes and cytoplasmic determinants
  • commitment of a cell to a specific pathway
  • strictly under the control of cytoplasmic determinants
  • result of the activation of stored maternal DNA
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22
Q

stem cells

A

pluripotent- any cell type in an organism
multipotent
totipotent

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23
Q

gradients of morphogens

A

help with pattern formation, which is cells determining their position in the embryo

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24
Q

mesoderm

A
  • responsible for the production of the notochord
  • move inside the embryo during involution at an amphibians dorsal lip
  • gives rise to blood vessels, gonads, heart, and skeleton
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25
Q

development of sperm

A

the cytoplasmic changes that bring about the character size and shape of gametes take place AFTER the completion of meiosis and cytokinesis
-in humans

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26
Q

zygote

A

a point where humans begin forming a multicellular diploid organism

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27
Q

embryonic stem cell therapies in humans

A
  • nine years
  • demonstrated stem cell therapies can restore some neural function in damaged spinal cords
  • demonstrated these therapies can restore function in cardiac tissue
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28
Q

tinman and GATA

A
  • transcription factors
  • lead to formation of heart
  • produced in response to signals from the endoderm
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29
Q

embryonic induction

A
  • one tissue influences an adjacent tissue to develop a certain way
  • it triggers a sequence of gene expression in target cells
  • instructive or permissive
  • the chemical identification of specific inducers has been difficult
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30
Q

fibroblast growth factors

A

a group of proteins containing a protein thought to be involved in the limb bud apical ectodermal ridge’s inhibiting of differentiation in the progressive sone

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31
Q

BMP4

A

stimulates the production of ventral mesoderm in amphibian eggs
inhibited by:
-the translated proteins specified by the material in the grey crescent
-spemann’s organizer factors
-noggin and chordin

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32
Q

redox reactions

A
  • enzyme that gains an electron becomes reduced and has a higher energy level
  • enzyme that loses an electron has been oxidized and now has a lower energy level
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33
Q

catalytic activity of an enzyme is affected by

A
  • pH of the solution in which the reaction occurs
  • temperature
  • concentration of the substrates
  • salt concentration in the solution
34
Q

ligands

A
  • competitive inhibitor- interferes with active site

- allosteric inhibitor- changes shape of enzyme

35
Q

cofactor

A

a manganese ion helps a digestive enzyme break down a nutrient by temporarily drawing electrons for the bonds being broken

36
Q

ATP

A

compound used by all living cells to provide the energy to drive many chemical processes

  • adenine (nitrogen base)
  • sugar (ribose)
  • triphophate (electrostatic repulsion between phosphates)
  • 7.3 Kcal per mol
37
Q

exergonic reaction

A
  • activation energy is required
  • the products have less energy than the reactants
  • does not require the assistance of enzyme to occur
  • has less energy after reaction
  • can be spontaneous
38
Q

enzymes

A
  • bring substrates together so they can react more easily
  • place stresss on specific bonds in substrate
  • lower the amount of energy needed for a reaction (catalyst)
  • donating or removing electron, not changing enzyme
  • not permanently changed by the reaction
  • orient molecules in energetically favorable fashion
39
Q

anabolism

A

reactions occurring within the human body that use energy to build complex molecules from simpler molecules

  • reactions that absorb energy
  • endergonic
  • precursor molecules making complex molecules using ATP and NADH
40
Q

amylase

A

increases rate at which starch is broken down into smaller oligosaccharides by lowering the activation energy

41
Q

substrate level phosphorylation locations

A
  • reactions catalyzed by pyruvate kinase
  • phosphoglycerate
  • protein in Krebs cycle
42
Q

water

A
  • final reduced product in energy metabolism in most animals

- only under conditions of high oxygen availability

43
Q

net gain of ATP in cellular respiration with the absence of oxygen

A

2 for each glucose molecule

44
Q

lactic acid

A
  • in no O2, it makes pyruvate into lactate
  • accumulated when fatigued
  • if high muscle activity, hydrolysis leads to extra H+ (acidic)
  • more common in animal metabolism than plant
45
Q

diffusion

A

in the electron transport chain, the protons driven out across the inner mitochondrial membrane return through the F1 ATP synthase complex by it

46
Q

Digestive system order

A

mouth, esophagus, stomach, duodenum, ileum, colon(large intestine), rectum, anus

47
Q

small intestine

A

-duodenum (most digestion), jejenum, ileum (jj not in frogs)
-ileum where most absorption happens
(large capillary system but does not receive a lot of blood)

48
Q

bile salts

A

-emulsify lipids and fat globules
-increases the efficiency of their digestion in he duodenum
-CCK stimulates bile being forced out of bladder
-free fatty acids and amino acids are moved to cells lining
-then go into lacteal and lymphatic system transporters
then transported back to heart

49
Q

inactive powerful hydrolytic enzymes

A

synthesized by pancreas and gastric glans so their activity can be restricted to appropriate locations in the alimentary canal

50
Q

Liver

A
  • converts ammonia to urea
  • synthesizes glucose from lactate using the gluconeogenisis pathway
  • islets of langerhans release glucagon when blood glucose levels are low
  • storage of glucose in form of glycogen
51
Q

vitamins

A

water soluble: B1-12, C, folic acid, biotin (pregnancy), para-amino benzoic acids
lipid soluble- A, D, E, K

52
Q

contraction of the diaphragm

A

causes tidal volume’s inward movement during breathing

53
Q

capillaries

A

arranged in networks and reach nearly every cell in body

  • o2, nutrients, and cellular tissue is exchanged with surrounding tissue
  • net flow of fluid into or out of one depends on the balance between blood pressure
  • have lowest blood velocity
54
Q

lymphatic system

A
  • return excess fluid and proteins that are across capillary walls
  • fat absorbed in gut distributed by lymphats (chylomicrons)
  • body defense- production of lymphocytes and transport of phagocytes
  • examined by immune system (PAMPS)
  • toll like receptor- ventral to dorsal gradient
55
Q

blood clotting steps

A
  1. hageman factor-factor 12 (xii)
    - activated by collagen and becomes factor 12a
  2. active hangman activates thromboplastin (10a, 8, Ca+)
  3. thromboplastin activates prothrombin(2) to thrombin(2a)
  4. thrombin activates fibrinogen to fibrin(1)- closes cut with sticky network
56
Q

things that occur in circulating mammalian erythrocytes

A
  • hemoglobin
  • chloride ions
  • NOT ATP
  • met-hemoglobin reductase
  • carbonic anhydrase
57
Q

Epinephrine and angiotensin II

A

signal molecules that cause the constriction of blood vessels
-effect on smooth muscle

58
Q

red blood cells (erythrocytes)

A
  • produced from bone marrow of adults
  • deliver oxygen from lungs to body
  • some are nucleated (birds, reptiles), some are not (humans)
  • transports CO2 out of tissues (mainly as bicarbonate)
  • most common blood cell in human body
59
Q

toll-like receptors

A

assist macrophages in the recognition of non-self antigens by their ability to bind to:

  • pathogen associated molecular patterns
  • viruses
  • bacteria
  • fungi
60
Q

vasopressin and oxcytocin

A

small peptide hormones produced and released by neurons originating in the hypothalamus

61
Q

hormone

A

chemical messenger that carries a signal from one cell to another via blood

ex: sterols, proteins, amino acids, unsaturated fatty acids
- NOT polysaccharides

62
Q

ecdysone and juvenile hormone

A
  • help humans control insect pests
  • cause insect larvae to not pupate
  • reduces its population growth
63
Q

pineal gland

A

builds up testosterone and produces melatonin

-important in males that reproduce seasonally

64
Q

negative feedback

A

Ex: hypothalamus serves as an integrated thermoceguatory center, which determines an organisms response to changes in its environment. Since, the hypothalamus normally serves to produce metabolic changes to reverse the direction of environmental temperature systems, it is negative feedback

65
Q

polypeptide hormone

A

can use the same receptor and cause different effects in different cells by the protein kinases activated by its second messenger targeting different effector proteins

66
Q

hormones that maintain or raise glucose levels

A
  • glucagon
  • glucocorticoid
  • epinephrine
  • cortisol
67
Q

structures in kidney order

A

glomerulus, bowman’s capsule, proximal tubule, loop of henle, distal tubule

68
Q

distal tubule

A
  • reduces water loss in body by aldosterone affecting it
  • there is controlled Na and K transport
  • still 20% sodium
  • secret potassium ions into filtrate (fine tunes amount in)
69
Q

witches milk

A

prolactin and oxytocin

70
Q

testicular feminization

A
  • males with external anatomy of an immature woman

- associated with a lack of cytoplasmic receptors for testosterone

71
Q

uric acid

A
  • has the most nitrogens

- associated with gout when deposited in joints

72
Q

intensity of a stimulus encoded within nervous system

A
  • the number of neurons firing action potentials in response to the stimulus
  • the amplitude of the local potentials generated by stimulus
  • the number of action potentials generated by a specific neuron
73
Q

integration

A
  • neuronal decision making

- occurs on any neuron cell body

74
Q

axonal hillic

A

1st voltage-gated ion channel

75
Q

neurolial cell

A

most abundant cell type in CNS

76
Q

information pathway within neuron

A

dendrite, cell body, axon

77
Q

parasympathetic vs. sympathetic

A
  • different types of neurotransmitters released onto target cells
  • different location of the cell body on first motor neuron
78
Q

basilar membrane

A

gives us ability to discriminate different frequencies of sound

79
Q

brain

A

interprets the stimuli

80
Q

primary vs secondary sense organs

A

primary: touch, pain, smell, temp, balance
secondary: taste, hearing, and sight

81
Q

re-polarizing a neuron’s cell membrane during an action potential

A

results from increased permeability to potassium ions

82
Q

hair cells

A
  • lateral line system in fish
  • semicircular canals
  • utricle
  • saccule
  • NOT olfaction in lizards

Animal Biology (6 decks)

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