Exam 3 Class Flashcards
(152 cards)
1
Q
What is an exoskeleton?
A
within integument with keratinized exoskeleton (from epidermis) and bony skeleton (from derm0s armadillo)
2
Q
What is an endoskeleton?
A
with bony skleteon, cartiliginous endoskeleton, and notochord deep within body
skeleton cranial skeleton, and postcranial made up of the axial skeleton (skull and vertebral column) and appendicular skeleton
3
Q
What are the different variations of endoskeleton?
A
amphioxus- notochord
lamprey- notochord, and combination pharyngeal slits of respiration, dorsal nerve cord specializatoin anterior in animal
gnatostomes- jaws and structural supprt in skull with ribs and vertebrae
4
Q
What loose connective tissue is bone made from?
A
mesenchyme is part of the system that is going to give rise to skeletal strutuctures the same way demal/endochondral specialized ocnncective tissues
5
Q
What is the cranium divided into?
A
3 parts (found in all vertebrates except chondricthyes or elasmobranches where dermatocranium was lost, and some agnathans where dermatocranium did not evolve with splachnocraniums, chondocranium or neurocranium, and dermatocranium.
6
Q
What order did things evolve/
A
evolved jaws before brain. then evolving brain areas and then put covering/chondrocranium on top
7
Q
What is the splagnocranium?
A
any part of the skull that arises from visceral arches (gill arches), first arose to support pharyngeal slits in filter feeding protochordates, then inbreathing in lamprey, arises form neural crest cells. cartilage (elasmobranches), or ossifies into endocondrial bone. elements contribute to jaw, hyoid, and/or ear formation in various gnathostomes.
8
Q
Where did our gill arches go?
A
We had 7 gill arches in agnathes, with 1st branchial arch of agnathes gives rise to palatoquadrate and meckel’s carilage. While the second arch gives rise to hyomandibula becoming the stapes in several vertebrates.
9
Q
What is the evolution of the splanchocranium?
A
embryonic gnathostomes begin with seven brachial arches that modify during development with mandibular arch (jaws) making up the palatoquadrate (upper) and meckel’s cartilage (lower). with the hyoid or hyomandibula (coopted as jaw fulcrum in some taxa).
10
Q
Where did human gills go?
A
Human embryo had arches becoming the different bones such as the stapes and styloid ligament, alisphenoid, malleus and inches and remnants of meckel’s cartilage.
important patterns to remember: how the bones of the first and second arch became bones of the middle ear in mammals, and that posterior branchial arches became laryngeal cartilages in tetrapods, while the third and fourth arches contribute ot the hyoid. Palquadrate to quadrate epiperterygoid to incus alipsheoind
Hypobranchial to body of hyoid
rest of branchial arches become part of laryngeal and thyroid cartilage
11
Q
What is the phylogeny of splanchocranium?
A
backbones of gill arches become specializations used for trachea and articulating start of vertebrae starting to move bones out of jaw and have formation of hyoid apparatus developed in mammals. cartilage and meckel’s don’t see bits of splanchnocranium just see full cranium.
12
Q
What is chondrocranium or neurocranium?
A
overlies and supports brain, cartilage (elasmobranchs), or ossifies into endochondral bone, forms form mesenchyme next to notochord, supports sensory organs, in most vertebrate is primary embryonic scaffold, and there is a role for vertebrae for occipital formation in cranium. Ethnosphonid and occipital are two main divisions. occipital arch and ethmoid plate other important part.
13
Q
What is the structure of the skull in a shark?
A
skeleton and blue is chondrocranium (top covering protecting brain and sensory organs- part of occipital bones and rest from vertebrae ), ethmoid and sphenoid bones internal through planes are a scaffold large part derived from splanchnocranium
14
Q
What is ethmoid?
A
ossified in fish and unossified in everyone else except mammals for turbinates associated with becoming endothermic
15
Q
What dermatocranium?
A
outermost casing of brain by dermal bones, intramembranous ossification vs. endochondral bone (chondrocranium), arose from bone armor of integument and sank inward to associate with chondrocranium and encase splanchnocranium first found in ostracoderms and placoderms. arose originally from bony armor in sank inward and became closely associated with chondrocranium.
16
Q
What are dermal bones?
A
dermal bones divided into different series depending upon where they are located with facial series on the front and face, premaxilla (lost in humans), maxilla, and nasal
17
Q
What are orbital bones?
A
whole bunch of bones. temporal series made out of series of bones in reptiles humans just have one temporal bone but a whole bunch in crocs.
18
Q
wWhat are vault series?
A
roof what makes the roof of the skull with frontal, parietal, and then post=paratal with pair bones humans lost post=parietal and fused frontal keeping two parietal making skull stronger with less articulations and protecting massive brain in huans.
19
Q
What is the structure of a jaw bone?
A
entire lower jaw is a single bone with all of it becoming one bone.
20
Q
What is the occipital made of?
A
occipital mostly chondrocranium, some dermatocranium.
21
Q
What are the three bones?
A
three bones composite bones, temporal bone has bits of chondrocranium, dermatocranium, splanchnocranium (through ear bones and styloid process- bone coming down on skull)
22
Q
What is the sphenoid?
A
Sphenoid- splanchnocranium chondrocranium, and dermatocranium.
23
Q
What is the structure of a shark jaw?
A
sharks hyomandibula attaches lower jaw to rest of jaw
24
Q
What are kinetic skulls and who has them?
A
many skulls are kinetic skulls (ancient fish, teleosts, squamates, birds, and early therapsids) having lateral movements of upper jaw and these bones rotate with multiple points of rotation, and rapid change of jaw size and configuration.
25
What are akinetic skulls and who has them?
akinetic (modern amphibians, turtles, crocodiles, and mammals)- has no movement between upper jaw and braincase, suckling and chewing using specialized teeth.
26
what is jaw suspension evolution?
maxilla fused to braincase, meckle’s cartilag encased by dermal bone, and suspensorium formed by hyodmandibular and quadrate
27
What is suction feeding apparatus?
rapid extension of the buccal acavity hyoid apparatus forms a struts pushes premaxilla out creating suction sucking prey in
28
What are the structure of alligator jaws?
alligators, jaws attaches to braincase through quadrate attached to lower jaw in back by articular bone. stapes- retile have stapes, with the stapes the only ear ossicle in the alligator as in all non-mammalian vertebreates it is long and thing and attaches to small disc-shaped tympaum on prootic depe within external acoustic meatus
29
What is the structure of the malls jaw?
In mammals, the en:re upper jaw is incorporated into the braincase. The lower jaw is made en:rely of the dentary bone, which is also a dermal bone
30
What are the structures of the ear and where did they come from?
Stapes: was there first (Hyoid) Incus: Middle (Quadrate) Malleus: Most external (Ar:cular).
The incus is on top of the malleus because the quadrate is on top of the auricular
31
What is the structure of the snake?
quadrate bone not rigidily attached cn jaw walk because skull is so atricultural.
32
What does the embryo armadillo show?
embryonic armadillo shows formation of three middle ear bones form mandibular arch
33
How did skulls develop?
from anapsid skull lacking finestra we go to a diapsid skull and fro diapsid two openings posterior to orbit forming temporal arches of the squamosal and ost orbital bone but these have been highly modified in many groups seeing such as anapsid turtles, modified diapsid in snake (greatly reduced skull because of kinetics for allowing to swallow prey losing bones and openingins merged with orbital space of skull, lizard (same thing previously) and bird (keep bones nd merging of ausual with orbiaal spice with giant hole).
34
What are synapsid skulls?
synapsids mammals with single opening posterior to the orbital space and the whole can often be merged and separate like some of earlier synapsids.
35
What is the skull like in an alligator?
alligator- superior and inferior temperoal fenestral
36
What is the skull like in a lizard?
lizard incomplete merging with eye
37
What is the skull like in a snake?
snake an dbard is one big hole bones smaller and lighter or lost entirely. at least lower boundary of inferior temporal fossa (infratemporal arch) lost. in many snakes fossae difficult to distinguish as such because of loss of so much of surrounding skeleton.
38
What are th human skulls made of?
Humans have three composite bones: occipital, parietal, sphenoid bone and have multiple bones that go into them.
sphenoid bone- center of skull and how are other bones attached to sphenoid bones
39
What are condyles?
in occiptal bone attaching to vertebral column and attaches to vertebrae through condyles. different types of vertebrates have different condyls, single occipital condyel located ventral to foramen magnum (spinal cord contacts the brain). with salamander, frog and humans having to condyles and attached and raised structure from occipital bone with divit but not always varying in shape dependent upon attachement to head. bird, crocodile and fish ahve 1 condyle.
40
What are the importance of fenestra in animals?
fenestra may allow for attachmet of strong jaw muscles and fenestra made by process of contact of two bones sygmatic and temperoral to form process and by having kidn of opening can actually have strong muscular attachment making jaw function (temporalis muscle) attaching all the way up to sagittal crest at top of head very distinguishable male trait of sexual dimoprhism the larger the crest the more powerful the jaw. temporalis muscle attach at superior suture of temporal bone and fenestra allow for muscle ot go thorugh and attac strongly to skull.
41
What was jaw attachment in primitive amniotes?
primitive amniote- anapsid skull with temporal muscles running from neurocranium to the lower jaw.
42
What was jaw attachment in therapsids?
sharing with some of primitive models alowing for expanded jaw muscle attachment. with branching of muscle attaching to dermatocranium and neurocranium wrapping around both.
43
What was jaw attachment in malls?
mammals muscles through fenestra nad attaching outside of the skull alowing for expanded jaw muscle attachment.
44
What is sound?
sound is a pressure wave caused by vibration: frequency or pitch: how close those waves are,
45
why is sound important for animals?
Intensity and how loud with most animals have a middle ear and an inner ear, sometimes an ear canal to change this mechanical energy into electric impulses understood by the brain with femlaes liking males to make low frequency osund making it hard to make that sound as a small animal prefferring something bigger and greater seperation between those waves. whales too big cant vibrate fast off such a large distance.
46
What is the structure of the inner ear?
malleus in contact with eardrum communicating sound to incus and sound to stapes hitting inner ear and that is transmitting informaiton in direct contact with inner ear. most animals have a middle and inner ear and very few have an ear canal. when stapes hitting inner membrane amplifying sound having ability to hear wider rane of frequencies because of bones and the structure
47
What is fish hearing like?
not all fish have same morphology, fish can have as many as 3 systems for hearing: lateral line (can sense surroundings using hair cells), swim bladder (attached ot inner ear, transmit sound through little bones with ossicles aging fish, internal hearing with a heavy otholit (accelerometer telling how fast going) or ear stone acts as an accerometer, and semi=circular canals. since fish can move in 3 dimensions (X,Y, and Z axis) their semi-cicular canals are more complex than in terrestrial mmamls to help them orient with an inner ear (sacculus) similar to those of tetrapods. sound passes form water through fish to inner ear complicated canals
48
What is tetrapod hearing?
with terrestriality, new echanisms were needed to bring sound energy from air to inner ear: fluid resists being set into motion by air (.1% transfer) with the middle ear gathering and concentrating airbrone virations from tympanum toward fluid-filled inner ear. They act as a lever system, transform air waves into fluid waves, and amplifying sound becaus elittle bones are much smaller than receptive tympanum.
49
What is hearing like in reptiles?
reptiles: one bone with sound and stapes touching tympanum sending vibrations to little ear. stapes called columella in all but synapsids,
50
What is hearing like in meals?
sound hits tympanum vibration transferring sound through little bones into inner ear. pinna is a therian innovation- ear connecting sound to one area sound gathering devices. with a transition to a three ear bone functional conflict between chewing and hearing. before: sound passes via articular-quadrates stapes to inner ear. after: with chewing, stronger jaws conflicted with hearing role and jaw transferred to dentary/squamosal while articular/quadrate specialize. the inner ear is full of fluid lined with hair cells, similar to those of lateral line that responds to movement of fluid when fibers are excited making particular region of calculating vibration like strings on guitar throughout cocclear
51
Why are teeth important?
eeth critical in vertebrate evolution allowing animals to become specialized predators taking advantage of prey and food items.
52
What is teeth in sharks like?
elasmobranchs/ sharks derived fro placoid scales directly in other groups no longer coming from placoid.
53
What are the two main parts of teeth?
teeth have crown- part of tooth emerging from gum-line, and root is part of teeth below jawline with varying depths having multiple or single roots.
54
What are the inner structures of teeth?
roots have pulp cavity-innermost part of tooth, cementum attach teeth to gum-line, canal going into each of roots of tooth full of blood and nerves as they are alive.
on crown can have one cusp or multiple cusps with molar in back have multiple teeth. covering on outside of teeth is enamel or epidermis the hardest substance in the body depositing before tooth comes out. dentin right below enamal deposited throughout lie of individual made of dermis and is harder than bone but not as hard as enamel.
55
What is the development of teeth?
how do teeth grow, lamina, placode, dental mesenchyme (neural crest cells) in in bud differentiation into dermal papilla with formation of cap (lose cap when erupt) and enamel epithelium being deposited secondary to deposit in cracks and spaces.
56
What is mammals tooth development like?
mammalian tooth development. epidermis produced enamel organs producing ameloblasts and secreting enamels. dermis [produces dermal papilla cells from neural crest make papilla, produces odontoblasts, secreting dentin and bone defines socket.
57
How do we classify teeth?
teeth classifications homodont vs. heterodont, polyphyodont vs. diphyodont, thecodont vs. acrodont vs. pleurodont (how many teeth attached).
58
What are homodonts and heterodonts?
homodont- unicuspid snake (each tooth one cusp) same kind of teeth throughout jaws. tricuspid (mutltiple cusps). heterodont- different types of teeth
59
What is a polyphyodont vs. a diphyodont?
polyphyodont- many sets of sharks. vs. diphyodont with 2 sets (milk teeth deciduous, and permannt teeth) special with rodents and lagomorphs teeth continuously grow resharpening when eating .
60
What are the specialized teeth of mammals?
specialized teeth of mammals with uneven enamel and dentin create self-sharpening teeth with wear, hyposodont teeth rotate into jaw as previous teeth wear out (conveyor belt)- six sets of teeth dying of starvation because can’t chew up and grind food.
61
What occurs in reptilian tooth replacement/
tooth lined up next to it and ready to go, teeth right next to it already going to very quickly replace teeth as lost.
62
What occurs in mammalian tooth replacement/
tooth below pushes it out and off. rodents stem cells at base of tooth alive and stay alive ocntinuously producing animal for tooth to continue grow and wear at top. hypsodont- high crowned dont replace teeth but they wear the crown starting high and wearing down until much shorter telling age of horse by looking at wear.
63
What are thecodont, acrodont, and pleurodont?
alligator/thecodont- deep in bone socks one set dont want to lose them and because we are chewing so much with a lot of stress all mammals have.
snake/acrodont- shallow socks with crest attachment
lizards/pluerodont- attachment on medial side of dentary
64
What are the benefits of heterodonty and diphonty?
benefits of heterodonty and diphonty with tototh/dental occlusion mean- allowing for much better chewing on tooth allowing the teeth to match eachother perfectly teeth moving around trying to touch eachother in the right way or evolutionarily wouldnt efficiently break down food through chewing so different surfaces of teeth to match with upper and lower jaws process efficiently
65
How did teeth evolve?
pelicosaurs started to have specizlied teeth but not quite singificantly just canine. therapsids specialization in teeth with molars
66
What are the structures of human teeth?
mammals- canines, incisors, molars.mammals: incisors- front scissors act like canines , canines- puncturing and holding, premolars like molars, and molars0 (crushing and grindign)
67
Compare bone and cartilage?
Bone and cartilage are supportive tissues
Bone and cartilage are supportive tissues, but inside the bone we find myeloid tissues that makes blood cells (lymphoid tissues is found elsewhere and also makes blood cells)
68
What is special about the bones
Bone: have osteocyte cell types, ECM: ground substance: calcium phosphate with proteins of collagen, and its high vascular, and very organized into osteons. , but inside the bone we find myeloid tissues that makes blood cells (lymphoid tissues is found elsewhere and also makes blood cells).
69
What is cartilage?
cartilage has chondrocyte cell type, ECM- ground substance: chondroitin, sulfate Protein: collagen, avascular, and disorganized
70
What are the three kinds of cartilage?
Three kinds of cartilage: hyaline cartilage (little cartilage) found mostly embryonically as the predecessor of bone formation, fibrocartilage have a lot of collagen (knee joints and hips intervertebral disc), and elastic cartilage having elastin instead of collagen (ears and tip of nose, and pubic symphysis)
71
What is the structure of a long bone?
Spongy or porous bone towards end and has compact or non-porous that is dense on the very outside. three parts to bone, epiphysis- end of bone, metaphysis- where bone is growing from, diaphysis-medullary cavity is found hollow.
72
What is endoconwdral bone development?
goes from local aggregation fo mesenchymal cells, to a cartilage intermediate stage, to ossification
73
What is intramembranous bone development?
goes from local aggregation fo mesenchymal cells, directly to ossification. which parts of skull are which types of bone development
74
What are the three kinds ofof forces applied to materials that you can measure and tell you how strong?
compression, tension, and shearing force
75
What is compression?
squish material and see how much pressure there is before it shatters. compressive strength in bones is the highest for every material comparing concrete, granite and is less than cast iron
76
What is tension?
still fairly high but not as high as it is under compressive strength all material less than compressive strength
77
What is shearing force?
ripping it everything lower than cast iron but still second highest and much less
78
What do the structures of bones indicate?
architecture of bones has layers but will not spread because it was a different layer stopping the crack from spreading. majority of force on bone is at edges and on outside of bony structure a lot of forces acting more strongly not acting uniformly throughout all bone and if you make that very strong can get away with hollow structure making it light?
79
What occurs when bone breaks?
break bone shear capillaries forming clot and start formation of secondary cartilage going into clot and becoming ossified forming spicules and infiltrating throughout all of the bone until you are essentially fully healed
80
Why are bones continually replaced?
bones always being replaced and changing based on daily impact and exercise making bones recruit more calcium phosphate and need to keep them stronger as well as normal wear and tear
81
What are the two types of fractures?
fatigue and load fracture
82
What is a fatigue fracture?
wear and tear
83
What is a load fracture?
force greater than strength of bone is applied to it, all fractures are because of this but can be result of some normal wear and calcification
84
What is the function of the notochord/vertebral column?
notochord/vertebral coloum define the long axis of the body, site for muscle attachment, prevent telescoping,a nd help to support weight
85
What si the functional evolution of the vertebral columN?
initially, spinal cord and dorsal aorta protection with dorsal (spporting and protecting nerve cord) and hemal arched (dorsal aorta) appeared first, and centra (main body of vertebrate in the middle of element supporting arches) formed secondarily to support arches. Secondarily, muscle attaches to the site with myoseptum and how divided into myoseptum. thirdly, suspension of body and locomtion
86
What is the vertebrae like in lampreys?
In lampreys, the vertebral elements are only the basidorsal and the interdorsals providing protectiong for dorsal nerve tube
87
What is the vertebrae like in gnathostome?
In the gnathostome, there are ventral elements, basiventrals and interventrals, and the notchord calcifying into centra coming into central structure.
88
What is the evolution of vertebral elements?
enlargements of some elements at the expense of others, vertebral components displace notochord and primary and mechical axis, and vertebral elements become regionally differentiated.
89
What is the structure of the vertebrae in fish?
fish- trunk (with ribs dorsal and ventral, neural arch and spine and neural canal), and caudal without ribs (hemal arch only found towards caudal vertebrae)
90
What is the structure of the vertebrae in tetrapods?
tetrapod (some)- true differentiation of regions
trunk- cervical (neck attached to skull not having ribs), thoracic (with ribs), and lumbar (without ribs), sacral (attached directly to pelvic girdle0
caudal- lose arches and just become centrum
91
What is aspidospondyl vertebra?
aspidospondyl- rhacitomous vetebra, two centra per segment, ossifed have neural spine, intercentrum and pelurocentrum small little sticking outfound in rhipistidians and early tetrapods
92
What is lepospondyl vertebrae?
one centra per segment, fused components. in amniotes, pleurocentrum dominates and intercentrum unossified and become intervertebral cartilage
93
What are the symmetrical vertebra?
both ends look the same with limited movment. acoelous- flat ends suited to receive and distribute compressive forces in mmamsl. amphicoealous- concave in both merged directions limiting motion found in fish
94
What are asymmetrical vertebra?
ball and socket movement. procoelous- concave and anteriorly and convex posteriorly- reptiles. Opisthocoelus- convex anteriorly and concave posteriorly in salamanders
95
What are heterocoelous bones?
saddle shaped at both ends allowing lateral and vertical flexion, but no rotation found in birds very flexible and doenst allow for rotation found in neck of birds and have elastic necks
96
What is the structure of rotatioN?
acoelous- roatation further down in bone. procoelous- move point of rotation to middle of vertebra lowering the torque on the spine. By moving the point of rotation at the center instead of the edge, procoelus and opisthocoelous vertebrae avoid stretching the spinal cord. heterocoelus vertebrae allow for a lot of movement an dflexibility
97
What is terrestrial locomotion like?
favored an elnrlarged centrumand disappearance of the notochord, and favored the enlargmenet of one or two parts of the centrum and increase strength and reduced flexibility to support weight on land. reptiles, birds, and all mammals lost the intercentrum completely making a little less flexible. . amniotes have large neural arches (allow for more muscle attachment as over more land and water).
98
What are the ribs?
ribs- struts that articulate or fuse with vertebrae, making trunk region. they serve as the muscle attachment site, suspent the body, protective cage around viscer, accessive breathing device (sometimes). form in the myospeta conncetive tissues (middle are) between blocks of body musculature. in some fish: they have dorsal and ventral ribs?
99
What are th types of ribs"?
types of ribs: true- meet ventrally with sternum. false- articualate with eachother but do not meat sternum. floating- not articulated
100
What are tetrapod libs like?
the ventral ribs of fish are lost and the dorsal ribs become the tetrapod ribs. primitive- articulated int eh intercentrume. derived terapods: in the pleurocentrum (reptiles and birds), or between centra (mammals)
101
What is an uncinate process
attachment site for respiratory an dhsoulder muscles, mechanically act as lever arms for inhalation.
102
What si the sternum?
endochondral bone (first cartilage0, point of origina for chest muscles and secure ventral tips of true ribs forming rib cage. it evolved multiple times (single or multple bones with different shapes), it is absent in fish, and the role of carina (keel) in birds- where breast muscles attache
103
What is the gastrula?
“abdominal ribs”. dermal origin (from ventral dermal scales), between sternum and pelvis, supports viscera, does not articulate with vertebrae/ribs, and they are a support site for muscle attachment
104
Why is it important that the vertebrae articulate with each other?
vertebra articulate with each other through through zygapophysis amphicoelous- except in fish. vertebrae articulate with each other in order to diminish torque on the vertebral column which is experienced in terrestrial locomotion. lateral undulation from fish to tetrapods with the foot serving as a pivot point to rotate the body.
105
What are the interlocking vertebral elements?
interlocking vertebral elements of the nueural arches (zygapophyses) allow verticle and horizontal movement but resisit twisting. ribs have two processes where they attach to the vertebral: capitulum (ventral) articulates with paraphysis of intercentrum tubercle (dosrsal) articulates with diaphosys of neural arch. Prezygonphsys (anterior to vetebrae and face up). postzygapophysis (posterior to vertebrae and face down) one prezygophsysis meets up with postzygapophysis of next vertebrae.
106
What are the tubercular?
tuberculum articulates to neural arches thorugh diaphyss. capitulum ventral capitulates to parapophysis.
107
What are fish vertebra like?
two vertebral regions, no interlocking proejctions, unsepecialized centra, support from buoynac,y an dvertebra are for locomotion musculature
108
What are tetrapod vertebra like?
support against gravity, transfer of propulasive locotmotin ofrce (sacral regions joins elvic girdle), increased pseiclziation of vertebral column, early tetrapods were still amphibious. with terrestriallity became sacral, cervical,a dn trunk specizlaition to increase locomotion performance with less thoractic cavity for better running and ribs concave. this stabilized hind limbs, move neck, and lumbar regions gives room for runnings.
109
What are snakes ventebrae like ?
snakes have specialized addiitonal vertebrae articulations can hav e alot of twisting forces because dont have legs so have two adiditonal zygophosis in zygosphene (anterior) and zyangtrum(posterior) can lock vertebrae together and prevent twisting
110
What are birds vertebra like?
cervical vertebrae are flexible (heterocoelus). middle and posterior vertebrae are fused into synscacrum stabilizing body for flight
111
What are general turtles vertebra like?
very elastic neck with specizliaed cervical vetebrae, limb girdles are inside the shell with the fusion of vetebrae and ribs (inside girdle? to shell.
112
What are the structures of each vertebra?
C1(atlas articulates with skull), axis- allows for movmeent of head, cervical vertebrae, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum and coccyx.
113
What are the names of human vertebrae?
vertebrae in each region. in general neural spines all facing downwards. cervical have small centrum and generall have bifid spinous process (two poitns for muscle attachment), thoracic (rib fassets) and long spinous process, lumbar region short spinous process and large vertebral body
114
What are human vertebrae like?
weird shape in sppine comparing so spine of ape ahs single gentle curve, human backbone is S shaped enabling wieght to be carried nearly directly above hip joints.
115
What are the structures of the axial and
ligmanet that enables roation (as in shaking head to indicate no), joint permits nodding (yes),
116
What are the specialization of vertebrae in mammal?
7 Cervical, 13 thoracic, 7 Lumbar, 2-3 sacral (5 in humans), Caudal (highly variable: 4 fused in humans
117
What is special about the caudal vertebra?
few have hemal spine. caudal vertebrae, of fish, most reptiles, birds and some long tailed- mammals that are hemal arches, but as we approach tips of tail vertebrae become centrum
118
What is special about marine mammals?
marine mammals don't need articulated vertebrae because not on land so dont have torque.
119
What is special about bison?
have enormous heavy heads and it attaches onto dorsal arches of vertebra and so will be modified according to what you need in muscle attachments.
120
What is the appendicular skeleton?
composed of the two girdles, pectoral (anterior shoulder)and pelvic girdles associated with limb
121
What is in the anterior girdle?
humerus, radius, ulna, metacarpals (turn on the radio and eat carp)
122
What is in the posterior girdles?
femur, fibula, tibia, and tarsals (tap dancing with your legs)
123
What are the different structures and names of the appendages?
highly modified in vertebrates depending on lifestyle and able to recognize bones: big bone stylopodium- (humerus/femur), two bones-zeugopodium (radius and ulna, and fibula and tibia), and little bones- autopodium (manus and pes- metacarpals and metatarsals)
124
What are the function of paired fins/limbs and girdles?
paired fins were source of tetrapod limbs. fins help stabilize body during more active swimming with girdles stabilizing fins, attaching muscles, and helping to use the fins for propulsion
125
What are the structures of fins?
epidortrichia (fin rays- actual rays), eratiotrichia (keratinized tips- very tp), pterygiophore (support withint body- at base of fins supporting find and become modified ot be pectoral and pelvic girdles.
126
What is the evidence that supports ventral fins becoming paired fins?
fin-fold theory, fossil record, and molecular biology
127
What is the fin-fold theory?
find-fold theory of paired fin organ. ventro-lateral caudal fin stabilized locomotion (agnathan)- addition of fin segments increased maneuverability with basals extend into body and created girdles- embryonic development in shark seeing continuous structure that separates and becomes separate pelvic and pectoral fines . fin folds stabilize animal while swimming and become separated into individau sets of paired fins allowing for increased maneuverability as well as stabilization.
128
What does the fossil record say about ventral fins?
fossil record to confirm spines on either side of body with early fishnot having fully developed fins but enlarged spines looking intermediate with ventral folds breaking down resulting in these structures
129
What does molecular biology say about ventral fins?
engrailed-q defines ventral, T-box genes defines appendage sites with T-box expression defines lateral find-fold growth. gene duplicaiotn and specialization i sharks, inter-fin growth is stopped. after sonic hedgehog expression, main axes of paired fins are freed form the bdoy wall, and establish proximodistal axes of appendages seen in tetrapodes. Tbx4/5 in amphioxus and in shark Tbx 5-posterior and tbx4-posterior seperated deifning fin. in fish sonic hedgehog is on the end of tbs and tbs4/ defines what close to body to what is away by sonic hdehod signaling.
130
What is the pattern underlying limb development?
pattern underlying limb development- tetrapod limbs are curved modificaitons of the fish liear developmet. curve produces digits along psoterior margin of limbs. stylopodium-1 bone branches out in to for zeugopodium preaxial- front of body to postaxial. radius deosnt branch out but creates a few smaller bones part of carpal. Ulna does branch out and starts branching out defining breaking off of further bones. fin has linear pattern but in tetrapods there is a left curve arching inward to make all of the bones that are covering structure with audopodum.
131
What is the origin of the pectoral girdle?
basals elongate and become conencted across the animal laterally forming gidle that support pectoral structure
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What is the fish pectoral girdle formation?
pectoral girdle- coracoid bar specialization in elasmobrachs (ceratobrachia same as lepidotrichia). pelvic girdle get elongation of basal elemnts forming puboiscihiac bar with further specialization of different fins and males developing claspers.
133
What was the rhipidistian girdles like?
rhipidistian pelvic and pectoral girdle early tetrapod fish- pectoral girdle early becomes attached to the skull in fish and rhipidistician. whereas, pelvic girdle does not articulate to midleine or skeleton but can see the origin of main bones in girdle. allow for use in pivoting on shallow water/on land not using the fins to move forward
134
What was tiktallik pectoral girdles?
tiktaalik pelvic girdles in vertebrate attached to axial skeleton creating the sacral region with more recognizable bone pattern. pectoral girdle lost its attachment to the skull being free allowing for neck place where it attached remains though. part of dermal skeleton sinking down instead of endoskeleton
135
What occurs through evolution of species?
clavical becomes part of plastron, loss of direct connection to skull and the loss of many dermal bones
procoricoid old bone and corocoid new one. scapula changes the least after dividng in early tetrapods becoming really important in eutherian mmamls. clavicle lost in amphibians really small from dermal. turles no loneer part of dermal. alligator only scapula and coracoid and birds have same with clavical and interclvicale forming wishbone
136
What is human scapula like?
carocoi process and acrmonion process (posterior) scauplar spine and deep and wide allowing for muscle attachment for weird muscle movements. attachment of humemrus to scapula is glanouid cavity.
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What is special about the pelvic girdle?
illium attaches to vertebrae, ischium always pointed posteriorly, pubis always pointed anteriorly
bird convergently evolved same pelvic convergent shape as ornitishicia point posterior to body.
models same bones with mamls bones merging or fusing into single structure with entire pelvic from skeleton and internal no longer demral
have dermal in pectoral because came from head bone
138
What are the general structure of the primitive tetrapod?
different numbers of digits. postaxial edge- facing back femur fibula, tarsals metatarsals and pahalanges number of phalanges vay. Humerus ulna then phalanges.
139
What is the variation of manus?
amphibians- only have four digits instead of five. lizards metacarpals (usually part of palm and wrist) elongated and become part of digits. turtles real broadening of hand and massive digits. birds fly highly modified manus with radius ulna smaller bones help to sabilize wrist and bend and modified metacarppals loss of phalanges and merged. perisodactyl mammals odd-toed ungualte: zebra, rhinko, tapir. antiodctyl0 even toed ungulated; giraffe bison, deer, camel with metacrapals extraordinarily elongated
140
What is the variation with the pet?
some have same hadns and feet others very different (birds0 merged tarsals with metatarsals created weird bones in legs). human foot placement of different bones fiublare and tibialre attach to fibula and tibia
141
How do the wrists and feet bend in animals?
dinosaurs and birds- hing with calcaneum straight bend. crocodles and mamamls articulation thorugh astragalus and calcaneum
142
What are the changes affecting locomotion in aquatic environments?
aquatic animals having tail as main contribution to locomotion (mamals becoming aquatic lost pelvic girdle except for penis), skeleton elements inside fins having paddles instead of digits all the same bones just covered. spine going this way left and right and in mammals spine works dorsal and ventrally need to have a tail like that with that shape of a tail. Birds fully aquatic- wings modified for strength with modified wing bones have really chunky and solid bone for more muscualar attachment to fly underwater birds associated with water having interdigital membranes using legs for propulsion
143
What are the changes affecting locomotion in terrestrial environments?
tetrapods limbs are main contributors: Cursorial: Run/walk, Fossorial: Dig, Saltatorial: Hop, Aerial: Flying, Arboreal: Live in trees (Scansorial: Climbing and walking, and • BrachiaCon: Swinging )
144
What does the axial column do for terrestrial animals?
is slung from shoulder girdle by muscles (minimizing locomotion impact on the skull), but pelvic directly attached to the hip and spine (transmit propulsive force directly to axial skeleton). modifying impact on skull as we running.
145
What limb orientation changes occur when an animal becomes cursorial?
changing stance with sprawled stance establising pivot points, still using lateral swing using overarm swing when the walk. vs. cursorial (running) locomotion with swining legs under the torso limbs move in a single plane (sagitally) pendulum swing support body wieght and increase efficiecny changing digit orientation to forward
146
How did the girdles change when animals became cursorial?
sprawled stance pectoral and pelvic girdle lateral with massive adductor muscles ot bring it into the body ex. crocodiles can lift themselves up to run faster femur pointing forward and illium poiting up dragging weight behind joint. attachment becomes ventral in the girdle with smaller adductor muscles and the forward thrust was alined with the direction of travel alrady going with pelvis and more efficent in that direction to run. altered force directions with altered girdle anatomy, a shift from lateral to vertical vetebral flexion (dorso ventral) and the loss of ribs and limb formation.
147
How di animals become more efficient runners?
speed is a product of stride length and stride speed/rate which is cat, horse, and human. The changes in foot posture affect limb length as the limb increases in length it can go faster and tuck in body with ribs gone. plantigrade- entire food down when they walk, become digitigrade take metatarsals out and walking on digits- cats and carnivores. unguligrade- animal going to get eaten further elongate metatarsals making much longer and running on tiptoe.
148
What is stride length?
longer limbs and longer stride: flexion of the vertebral column- having flexible vertebral column dorsal/ventral flexion faster running have even ore flexible bending ans tretch front and back and get enormous stride length by stretching out backs farther.
149
What is stride rate?
shorter limbs could have faster rate, but sacrifice speed overall. instead, increase muscle power proximal to the body, and reduce limb inertia by using light tendons on the tip. decrease muscle attachment distal to body using tendons without a lot of mass muscular leg and girdle muscle proximal to the body and distal to the body minimizing mass at the tip of the limbs to get a higher rate than otherwise able to instead of massive and muscular legs throughout.
150
What is special about humans?
human ability to do endurance running able to go and go and go to sweat perfusely throughout body as you increase stride length speed increase but humans when in endurance range perform well when we are in optimal range of stride length and good as any quruped and better than most quadrapeds
151
What is special about the panda thumb?
panda five digits have additional bony structure called thumb not a moveable digit but derived from radial sesamoid bone from wrist ossified conective tissue of the hand and wrist enlarged and ossigied as holding place for bamboo stripping.
152
What is the purpose of tails?
used for balance, steering, grip, maneuverability, social communications with other members of their species, heat using them as blanket,
