Exam II Flashcards
(135 cards)
0
Q
What do memory models consist of?
A
A number of discrete components or processes that underlie info processing
1
Q
New learning is grounded in _______ , while effective learning depends on ________
A
How the info will be later received
2
Q
Modal model of memory
A
All processes are susceptible to losing or forgetting
3
Q
Working memory
A
Dynamic form of short term memory;
Currently activated ideas
4
Q
Executive control
Controls what?
What does it do regarding responses?
2 other things it does
A
Control sequences of thought and action
Select and launch
Plan goals and break habits
5
Q
What requires working memory?
Do some tasks demand more WM than others?
A
Virtually all mental activities
Yes
6
Q
How do we measure WM?
A
Digit span test
7
Q
What is the average WM span?
A
7 +- 2
8
Q
What is chunking?
1 disadvantage
1 advantage
Does it increase WM?
A
Ability to condense info into groups
Requires effort
Reduces load
No it does not
9
Q
2 other measures of WM?
What 3 things do they correlate strongly with?
A
Reading span, Operation span
Test performance, reasoning and reading ability
10
Q
How do we measure reading span?
A
Participant reads sentences and remembers the last word in each sentence. The number of words remembered is the RS.
11
Q
How is operation span measured?
A
Is the equation T or F
Number of remembered words
12
Q
When testing memory does an items list position impact whether or not it will be remembered?
A
Not really
13
Q
Serial position curve in free recall tests of memory showed–
A
Better memory for the last few items
14
Q
Primacy effect
What is it?
Allows transfer to what?
A
Better memory for first few items
Allows transfer from WM to LTM
15
Q
What did having participants engage in 30 second task during delay between study/test do in testing of WM?
A
Displaces the last few times from the WM; impacted recency effect
16
Q
Did 30 seconds of unfilled delay impact the recency effect of WM?
A
No
17
Q
How can we promote the end coding of items into long term memory?
A
Giving more time in between the listing of items to allow us to chunk or repeat list
18
Q
Rehearsal promotes ________.
2 types of rehearsal?
A
Long term storage
Maintenance rehearsal
Elaborate rehearsal
19
Q
What is maintenance rehearsal?
A
Reciting items
20
Q
What is elaborate rehearsal?
A
Linking items to better remember them
21
Q
Which type of memory rehearsal is superior?
A
Elaborate
22
Q
2 ways to process info using elaboration?
A
Shallow processing
Deep processing
23
Q
Shallow processing
A
Surface or perceptual features such as living or non living
24
Deep processing
Meaningful interpretations of info, leads to much better memory recall
25
Two types of intention to learn
Incidental learning
| Intentional learning
26
Cross depth of processing 3 levels and their depths?
```
Typeface task (shallow)
Phonological (intermediate)
Semantic task (deep)
```
27
Which matters more: the amount of time spent trying to remember items or the type of processing strategy you use to memorize?
Type of processing strategy
28
Structural task
| What type of processing
Shallow processing; note the pattern of consonants and vowels in a word
29
Semantic task
| What Type of processing
Deep. Does the word fit in a sentence?
30
Depth of processing promoted recall by _________ _________ __________.
Facilitating later retrieval
31
How can we look at learning from a cognitive stand point?
A way to establish indexing or forming connections between items
32
Elaborate encoding forces us to think about what?
Relationships
33
What did Katona argue?
That the key to creating connections in the to-be-remembered material is organization
34
How do mnemonic strategies help memory?
By imposing organization
35
First letter mnemonics
| Example
ROY G BIV
36
Skeleton peg word system
What is it?
Downside?
Items are hung on system of already known pegs, using mental imagery
You don't look for or find a richer understanding of the material by relating it to things already known
37
Method of Loci
Learning connects new material to existing memories and these retrieval paths help us learn new materials
38
Context dependent memory
Improved recall of specific episodes or info when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same or similar
39
Godden and Baddeley
Scuba diver experiment showed context reinstatement
40
Connections made when learning are within what possible 4 things?
Within the study material
Between studied material
Learner's thoughts at the time
Learner's knowledge base
41
State of independent memory
Generalizing the idea of context to the internal environment
42
When is memory most effective
When an individual is in the same state as they were when the memory was formed
43
Fisher and Craik
Participants were told to remember the second word of a word pair that was semantically related or rhymed. The prime words were presented as cues or hints
44
The encoding specificity principle
What is it?
Memory is most effective when?
A framework for explaining how context affects learning and recall
When info available at encoding is also available at retrieval
45
Spreading activation
Offers account of what?
Travels where?
Of how connections impact learning
| Travels from one node to the other via the associative links
46
What suggests an explanation for why hints help us to remember?
Spreading activation and thresholds
47
Recollecting
What is it?
Requires what?
Generate item with or without a cue
| Requires memory search
48
Recognition can be based on what 2 things?
Mechanisms common to recall or familiarity
49
If source memory is available, recognition responses are ______ in mechanism to recall
Similar
50
In some cases what are recognition responses based on?
A feeling of familiarity
51
Processes mediating source memory and familiarity are _________ in the brain
Dissociable
52
Other regions of the brain such as _________ are implicated in familiarity signals
Left parietal cortex
53
Implicit memories
Memories not accessible by conscious awareness and are revealed by indirect memory tests
54
Explicit memories
Conscious memory, direct memory testing such as recall or recognition
55
Processing fluency
An improvement in the speed or ease of processing
56
Indirect test
Can reveal what types of memories?
Tested 3 ways?
Memories from the past
| Word fragment completion, word stem completion, and repetition priming
57
Gollin's partial picture task
Assesses perceptual learning
58
Jacoby and Dallas
Demonstrated what?
Study?
Test?
Demonstration of distinct types of memory from the past
Study: all subjects studied list of 60 words with 3 tasks
Test: subjects split into two groups: recognition and perceptual tasks
59
What did Jacoby and Dallas find on Implicit memory:
Previous exposure?
In relation to explicit?
Decay rates?
Correlation between words given to subject and words recognized?
- facilitates no effect of task
- qualitatively different and sensitive to changes in test format
- different decay rates
- little correlation
60
Squire's taxonomy of memory
Highlights the distinctions between different forms of memory
61
2 aspects of explicit memory?
| 4 aspects of implicit memory?
Episodic memory
Semantic memory
Procedural memory
Priming
Perceptual learning
Classical conditioning
62
4 Consequences of removing HM's temporal lobes?
Stopped having seizures
Maintained above normal IQ
Retrograde amnesia
Anterograde amnesia
63
Retrograde amnesia
| Anterograde amnesia
Loss of memories made before disruption
Inability to form new memories
64
Diencephalic damage
Mammillary bodies
65
Korsakoff's syndrome
Vitamin B1 deficiency
66
Herpesviral encephalitis
Damage to hippocampus
67
What was a surprising find with HM?
| What type of memory does mirror tracing test?
His errors in the mirror tracing task reduced after each day he completed the task but he did not remember doing it
An implicit memory task
68
What experiment did brewer and trevens do?
Office experiment.
69
4 hypothesis regarding memory errors
Memory connections link each bit of knowledge to other bits of knowledge
No clear boundaries separating memories
Helpful for memory retrieval
Difficult to separate memory for a particular episode
70
The Deese Roediger McDermott Paradigm
What was it?
Findings?
Read a list and then asked if words were in the list
90% of words remembered
But just as likely to recall the lists theme word even though it wasn't presented in the list
71
Schema
Generic knowledge that describes what is typical or frequent in a given situation
72
What can schematics do regarding memory retrieval?
Can help remember events or can cause us to make errors remembering events
73
Misinformation effect
Memories can be altered after the fact by suitable suggestions or questioning
74
Loftus and Palmer
| What was their study and findings
Students presented with list of events and told the list was provided by parents, asked to recall those events. Some had happened some had not. Students did not recall bogus events on first interview. Found that imagining a suggested event can inflate false memories.
75
```
False memories vs Real memories:
Emotion?
Confidence?
Feeling of recollection?
Recall speed?
```
False memories can be equally emotional
Just as confident in false as true
Recollection more associated with true memories
Accurate memories recalled faster than false memories
76
Hermann Ebbinghaus
forgetting curve
77
4 hypotheses about why we forget
Failure in acquisition
Decaying
Interference
Retrieval failure
78
Interference
New learning May disrupt older memories, but older may also interfere with encoding new info
79
Retroactive interference
Occurs when you are trying to recall something you commuted to memory in the part and some familiar thing you've learned since that time obstructs your ability to correctly call what you want to mind
80
Proactive interference
Occurs when you are trying to recall something you've memorized relatively recently and a separate part memory muddles the one you wish to recall
81
Retrieval failure
Memory is intact but cannot be accessed
82
Problems with hypnosis
Report more but probably only because they are willing to say more
Need not correspond to true memories; more open to misinformation
83
What makes a long term memory more likely to be retrieved?
| When does this particularly seem to work?
Providing a suitable cue
| Works with retrieval failure
84
What can revisiting a memory over time do?
Helps decrease likelihood of subsequent forgetting, even more than restudying
85
Self reference effect
Refers to memory of episodes and events in a persons own life and are subject to errors
86
Memories about ourselves
Subject to what?
Mix of what two things?
Biased towards what?
Error
Genuine recall and schema based construction
Biased to emphasize positive traits
87
Which are remembered better: emotional memories or non emotional memories?
Emotional memories
88
What do emotional events trigger in the brain to encode memories? What is the process?
Trigger response in the amygdala, which interacts with the hippocampus to promote memory consolidation
89
Flashbulb memories
Memories of seemingly extraordinary clarity typically for highly emotional events
90
What did the challenger shuttle explosion memory test show?
That some flashbulb memories contain large scale error
91
What can determine whether or not a flashbulb memory is well remembered?
Consequentially- whether it matters to a person's life or not
92
What increases Traumatic memory consolidation
Physiological arousal
93
Traumatic memories can be ______ and then ________.
Lost
| Recovered
94
3 ways that we lose memories
Voluntarily
Retrieval failure
Misinformation
95
Concepts
Building blocks that can be simple but hard to define
96
Why do we care about concepts?
| 4
May not share identical attributes
Can have continuous dimensions
Hierarchally organized
Differ in how well a emmer represents its category
97
What do members of a given category concerning concepts have?
Resemblance to one another; possibly no defining features but features that are common within the category
98
Prototype
What are they?
Can differ across whom?
One that possesses all the characteristic features of a category; ideal member
Individuals or cultures
99
Graded membership
Some members of category are closer to the category's prototype than are other members
100
When we ask people to think about a category, what do they think of?
The prototype for that category
101
3 ways to test prototype notion to demonstrate typicality effects
Production task
Picture ID task
Sentence verification task
102
Sentence verification task
Decision made more quickly the closer the test case is to the prototype of that category
103
Production task
What is it?
Results?
Name as many members of a category as possible
Will typically start with the members closest to the prototype
104
Picture ID task
What is it?
Results?
Shown a picture and judges whether the picture is "typical" for a category
Typicality Influences judgements of attractiveness
105
3 types of categories
Super ordinate
Basic level
Subordinate
106
Superordinate
Large category at top of the hierarchy
107
Basic level
Intermediate category, just right . members share attributed but also have attributes that differ from those of items in other basic levels
108
Subordinate
Too detailed
109
Which type of category is learned first?
Basic categories
110
Exemplar based reasoning
Example of the category that comes to mind rather than the prototype
111
2 views on categories and where does the difference between them lie
Prototype and exemplar
| What makes them different lies in what the standard is for comparison
112
Conceptual knowledge uses both _________ and _________.
Prototypes and exemplars
113
Prototypes vs exemplars economical and flexibility
Prototypes: more economical but less flexible
Exemplars: less economical but more flexible
114
What does experience involve concerning exemplars and prototypes?
Averaging exemplars to get prototypes
115
How is concept knowledge represented?
Via a vast network of connections and associations between all the info you know
116
Knowledge is organized how and formed by what?
Not randomly organized, formed by connections
117
What links together to form networks? What is knowledge a product of?
Related bits of info linked together
| Knowledge is interactions between the bits of info
118
How are bits of info related to eachother concerning distance
Less related bits are further away in the network while more related bits are closer to eachother
119
What does the sentence verification task provide evidence of?
That knowledge is a network
120
What are nodes of the knowledge network? What are links?
Nodes represent concepts
| Links can associate the concepts
121
Anderson's ACT network is designed around what?
Proportions
122
Propositions
Smallest unit that can be true or false in the ACT network
123
Propositional networks
Each node is equivalent to one concept in the ACT network
124
Connectionist network
Distributed processing, info involves a pattern of activation and is represented by a pattern of activation across the network
125
How does learning occur according to the ACT theory of the knowledge network
Through changed in the strength of connections between nodes
126
Semantic dementia
What is it?
Damage where?
Progressive neurodegenerative disorder. Loss of semantic memory in both verbal and nonverbal domains, deficits in generating exemplars, episodic memory is fine
Damage to medial temporal lobes
127
What type of brain damage can cause seemingly bizarre deficits in ones ability to categorize?
Certain types of temporal lobe damage
128
A hypothesis behind our knowledge of living and non living things
Visual features play role in living
| Non living categorized along functional attributes
129
Greater damage to visual semantic memory has a disproportionate impact on categorization of living things. This fits the view of what?
Connectionist architecture
130
Connectionist architecture
Verbal and visual representations only linked through semantic memory, which is divided according to properties
131
Where is info about salient properties of objects such as what they look like and how they are used stored?
In sensory and motor systems active when that info was acquired
132
What can we conclude from evidence through brain imaging about categorizing objects and concepts?
Suggests that object concepts may not be entirely explicitly represented but rather emerge but rather emerge from weighted activity within property based brain regions
133
ACT model
What does it stand for
What it is
Adaptive control of thought
| Models memory as a set of related symbolic chunks which may be accessed through retrieval cues
134
who proposed the idea of propositions
John Anderson
