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Exam III Flashcards

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1
Q

Vitamin D

A
  • Steroid hormone
  • Gets mobilized into an active form caled calcitriol
  • Hypercalcemid by increasing Ca absorb in small intestine
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2
Q

Adenylate cyclase

A
  • Enzyme in G protein system
  • Turned on by G protein
  • Takes AMP and makes cAMP
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3
Q

PTH and Bone

A
  • Increase osteocytic osteolysis
  • Increase osteoclast activity (slowly)
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4
Q

Addison’s Disease

A
  • Decrease in cortisol
  • Decrease HGO
  • Decrease glycogen store
  • Decrease adipose
  • Decrease in muscle glycogen (weak)
  • Decrease sympathetic response
  • Skin darkening
  • Decrease aldosterone (high K low Na)
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5
Q

Calcitriol

A
  • Active form of vitamin D hormone
  • Acts on intestine to increase Ca absorb
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6
Q

Alpha 1 Adrogergic Receptors + Cortisol

A
  • Cortisol helps maintain

Sympathetic release of NorEpi –> Vasoconstriction

  • Cortisol maintains receptor numbers so this response can occur
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7
Q

GLUT 4 and insulin

A
  • Sugar transporter across the membrane
  • Insulin takes GLUT4 from cytoplasm and places in membrane to increase transport
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8
Q

Zona Glomerulosa

A
  • Makes aldosterone
  • Regulated by renin angiotensin system
  • ACTH help maintain Z.Glo
  • Regulates kidney Na retention and K excretion
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9
Q

Feedback in Follicular Phase

A
  • Follicles secrete estrogen
  • Esterogen does positive feedback to HPA
  • This positive feedback is responsible for the surge of LH at time of ovulation
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10
Q

Median Eminence

A
  • Capillary bed at base of hypothalamus
  • Neurosecretory neurones release hormones here
  • Pick up hormones from hypothalamus and forms portal Vessel
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11
Q

Sarcomere purpose

A
  • Generate Tension - Sarcomere = Striation
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12
Q

Nuclear Hormone Receptors

A

For steroid hormones

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13
Q

Pancreas Exocrine

A
  • Ducts - Digestive enzymes and bicarb
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14
Q

Isometric Experiment

A
  • Anchor one end of skeletal muscle and connect other end to a force transducer
  • Length constant
  • Add $ and measure tension
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15
Q

Skin darkening in Addison’s

A
  • Decrease cortisol… less negative feedback in HPA
  • Increase CRH
  • Increase ACTH
  • ACTH mimics hormone MSH (skin dark)
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16
Q

Prostaglandins

A
  • Free fatty acids - Chains of carbon atoms with various subgroups that might have regulatory function
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17
Q

Three layers of adrenal cortex

A

Zona Glomerulosa

Zona Fasciculata

Zona Reicularis

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18
Q

Pars Intermedia

A
  • Tissue that differentiates during development to make MSH
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19
Q

Serum Ca and Calcitonin

A
  • Ca too high, Calcitonin released
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20
Q

G-Actin

A
  • Globular proteins arranged in a double helix to form a filamentus actin
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21
Q

Ca Hormones

A

PTH

Calcitonin

Vitamin D

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22
Q

Oral Contracepties

A
  • Small amount of estrogen and some progesterone
  • Provides levels similar to luteal phase or early pregnancy
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23
Q

Slow Twitch Fiber

A
  • Smaller diameter - Darker because of myoglobin - Fatigue resistant
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24
Q

Active Insulin

A
  • Alpha and beta chains
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25
GLUT 2
- Liver, pancreativ B cell, serosal surfaces of gut and kidney - Low affinity for glucose - Can also take up fructose
26
Starvation among plenty
Type I diabetes - High blood glucose but no insulin to get GLUT 4 to bring it into cells
27
Db/Db + Ob/Ob
obob loses weight dbdb stays the same
28
Growth Hormone - Hyperglycemic
- Hyperglycemic - Store of blood glucose in liver as glycogen... put into blood - GH acts on liver to mobilize glyocgen and put into the blood
29
Cortisol and Kidney
- Increase renal blood flow - Increase glomecular filtration - Helps excrete H2O load
30
Muscle Contract
- Every myofibril and sarcomere is activated and shortens
31
Cortisol Paradox and Insulin
- Cortisol alone gives a true lipolytic response - Modern western society: release cortisol but *also get fed*.... cortisol with insulin - Some lipolytic behavior, but also have insulin - Abdominal fat is particularly sensitive to insulin so even with low levels of insulin can get extra abdominal fat
32
Girls mature first because
- Hypothalamic axis matures first
33
T4 Actions
- Regulate metabolic rate - Increase oxygen consumption - Regulate body temperature - Helps with normal growth and development
34
Actin Structural Proteins
- Nebulin - Titin
35
Anabolic Steroids
- Testosterone knockoffs - Formulated to increase muscle stregnth **Men who take it:** - Decrease GNRH, LH, FSH --\> shring testis **Women who take it:** - Experience liver and reproductive issues
36
Exophthalmos
- Hypothyroid - Looks like eyes popping out of head - Fluid and protein accumulation behind the eyes
37
Testosterone to Estrogen
- Acted upon by aramotase
38
Cretinism
- Lack of thyroid hormone when developing - Physical dwarf - Mentally compromised
39
Hormone Quantities
ng/mL 10^-9 g/mL
40
Insulin Receptor
- Has its own enzyme activity (kinase) - Insulin binds, causes change - Receptor undergoes **autophosphorylation** - Starts a huge phosphorylation cascade
41
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
- No ER in muscles - Stores Ca 2+
42
Gonadotropins
FSH and LH
43
Myosin Head
- Interacts with actins - Forms bonds and rotates towards the center of the sarcomere - Grab actins, pull them together... shorten sarcomere during contraction - Contains Mg-ATP complex - Contains ATPase Enzyme - Head in couplets
44
DHP
- Dihydropyridine - Signaled by action potential in T-Tubule - Interacts with RyR protein in sarco. reticulum
45
Gigantism
- Over secretion of GH - Inc. cell division in pit to make GH - Pit grows but encased in bone... pushes on hypothalamus which pushes optic chiasm - Vision problems - Other issues.... adrenal, reproductive, high blood sugar
46
Decrease Iodine in Diet
- Decrease T3 and T4 - Increase TRH - Increase TSH --\> hyperplasia and hypertropy
47
Metabolizing FFAs
- Type I diabetes - Increase ketone bodies in liver .... highly acidic (blown off as acetone) - Ketones can lead to ketoacidosis
48
Glycosuria
- Kidney cannot handle excess glucose - Glucose in urine... takes water with it - People feel dehydrated and drink more
49
Testosterone to DHT
- 5-alpha-reductase reduces it to DHT
50
EOF Smooth Muscle
- 300x better than skeletal muscle
51
SEC
- Series eleastic compnenet - Tendons at the end
52
A Band
- Actin and myosin overlap - Each myosin surrounded by 6 actins
53
Glycogen Depletion
- Muscles run out of glycogen - Need glycogen to fuel oxidative resp. - People train to increase glycogen storage in muscle... run and then carb load!
54
Vitamin D in The Kidneys
- 1-alpha-hydroxylase (PTH positive feedback) act on Vitamin D3 - Released from kidneys as calcitriol - Acts on intestines to increase Ca absorb
55
GHRH
Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone - Increases GH - Act on cells in pituitary to act on GH release
56
Male Target for LH
- Leydig cells
57
D Cells
- Islets of Langerhans - Make somatostatin
58
GH and growth
- Protein anabolic - Bone growth
59
Adrenal Medulla
- Inner adrenal gland - Makes epinephrine - Controlled by sympathetic nervous system
60
Vitamin D Synthesis in Body
**IN LIVER** - Cholesterol → Vitamin D3 Precursor **Through blood to skin** - Absorb UVB light → Pre Vitamin D3 **Return to LIVER** - Convert to Vitamin D3 **Goes into blood to kidneys**
61
Release of sperm
- Travel from epididymis through the ductus deferens
62
AA --\> Glucose in Liver
- Need to deaminate - Left with carbon atoms - Turn carbons into glucose - AA used move often is alanine - If you see deaminating enzymes in the blood = liver damage
63
Endocrine regulation of Ca
- Ca is most highly regulated ion in the body - 9-11 mg % in the blood - Regulate via fast turnover
64
Treatments for Type II Diabetes
- Glucophage - Oral insulin - TZDs - Fliptin DPP-4 - GLP-1 Receptor Agonists - SGLT-2 Inhibitors
65
Type II Diabetes
- 95% of diabetics... adult onset - Insulin resistance - Obesity is a huge risk factor - Have insulin but tissue does not responds to it
66
Stored form of thyroid hormone in blood
T4
67
Calcitonin
- From C cells in thyroid - Calci tone down - Peptide - Hypocalcemic - More important in juveniles
68
What happens in type I diabetes?
- High blood glucose - Cannot turn on GLUT 4 to get glucose into cells - Starvation amidst plenty - Glucose spills into urine - Cells metabolize free fatty acids
69
Bill Daughaday
- Tissue + radioactive S35 - Add GH... expect epiphyseal disc to grow and incorp S - Nada... Repeat with same conditions + a piece of live - Incorporated! - Liver is the difference... "Growth Mediator"
70
Suckling
- Milk letdown - Milk synthesis Oxytocin and Prolactin
71
Two Major Communication Systems in the Body
- Nervous - Endocrine
72
MSH
- Melanocyte stimulating hormone - From pars intermedia - No function in humans - Lower vertebrates... change color of skin
73
Male Birth Control
- Treatment with progesterone and testosteron - Pro: inhibits HPA - Test: balances test
74
Type I Muscle
- Slow oxidative - Mostly posture - Resistant to fatigue - High oxidative capacity (lots of mitochondria) - Moderate SR activity
75
Functions of Testosterone
- Sperm development - Maintainance and development of male reproductive tract - Secondary sexual characteristics - Central Nervous System - Metabolic Hormone
76
Islet of Langerhans Cell Types
**Alpha**: glucagon **Beta:** insulin **D:** somatostatin
77
Muscle Type Transform
Cannot go 1 --\>2 but can go from a and b and vice versa
78
A Band
- Anisotropic - More than one type of protein
79
Puberty and Bones
- Estrogen and Test stimulate bone growth --\> spurt! - At end, reach terminal height - Epiphyseal disc disappears and becomes solid bones
80
Adipose tissue
- Responds to many hormones - Secretes hormones - talks to everyone! - First hormone discovered from adipose tissue = leptin
81
Source of estrogen in postmenopausal women
- DHEA from adipose tissue
82
Decrease Calcium Release from SR
- When working hard, inorganic phosphate sneaks back into the SR via chloride channels, - Phosphate binds up calcium and keeps it from being released
83
Rickets
- Vitamin D deficiency - Either not enough in diet **OR** enough in diet but cannot be absorbed (not enough UVB) - In juveniles leads to permanent bone deformation - Adult verision is called osteomalacia
84
Causes of Fatigue
1. Lactic Acid Buildup 2. Glycogen Depletion 3. Decrease in Ca release from SR
85
Ant Pit --\> Thyroid
TSH stimulates thyroid
86
Rigor Mortis
- No ATP - Muscles are stuck - Cannot separate A and M
87
Treating castrated animal with inhibin
- Decrease FSH - take extract from testicular lymph or rete testis
88
Protein / Peptide Hormones
- Most - Insulin - Growth Hormon - Prolactin - Generally water soluble
89
How do you get cAMP levels back down?
- **Phosphodiesterase** - cAMP --\> AMP - Form of regulation is to regulate amount of PDE
90
ACTH
- Ant. Pit. - Adrenal hormones - Peptide
91
VMax dist. vs. load
- Vmax is a function of type of ATPase
92
Denervation Experiments
- Take muscle fiber - Innervate from axon causes muscle contraction and also info for where to put ACh receptors - Remove axon, ACh channels appear on surface of cell at points where there are no axons attached
93
Adrenal medulla + lungs
- Act on beta receptors... cause smooth muscle relaxation
94
Covalent Regulation
- Myosin kinase phosphorylates serines on myosin so it can bind to actin and form crossbridge
95
Actin Structure
- Formed from G-Actin in a double helix - G actins form filamentus actin - Troponin every 7 and tyopomyosin (regulatory proteins) - Nebulin runs through the middle - Titin helps stabilize Sarcomere
96
Adrenal Gland
- Sits on top of kidneys - Outer = adrenal cortex - Inner = adrenal medulla
97
Actin
- Thin filaments
98
Role of progesterone in male birth control
- Inhibits the HPA
99
Tyrosine Derivative Hormones
- Epinephrine - Thyroxine - Both are water soluble
100
Peroxidase
Enzyme that hook up iodines and thryoglobulin
101
Epididymis
- Where sperm is stored - Final maturation process takes place here
102
Type I diabetes
- No insulin - Juvenile - Autoimmune - antibodies to beta cells in pancreas
103
Hyperthyroid
- Too much thyroid hormone - Increase metabolic rate - Feel warm - Anxious, nervous
104
PDE
- Phosphodiesterase - Degrades cAMP --\> AMP - Form of regulation is to regulate amount of PDE
105
Ca Pump
- Uses ATP - Brings Ca into the SR and out of the cytoplasm - Decrease [Ca] in cytoplasm
106
Glucagon and Liver
- Increase glycogenolysis - Increase gluconeogenesis - Increase protein catabolism
107
Hyperglycemic hormones
GH T4 T3 Cortisol Epinephrine Glucagon
108
Two uses of ATP in muscle
1. Hydrolyze and use energy in phosphate bond to rotate head 2. Use fresh ATP sterically to to separate actin from myosin
109
Thyroid Hormone Synthesis
- Take iodine out of blood and bring into cell - **Na symporter** moves I into cell - **Pendrin** transporter moves I into the colloid where **peroxidases** put thyroglobulin - Tyrosines attach - Couple Iodine to tyrosines - Now have thyroglobulin and iodines - Draw thyroglobulin into the cell and use enzyme to cleave T3 and T2 and put in blood
110
Neurosecretory Neurons
- Long axons - Terminate in post. pituitary - Neurohemal... post pit
111
Luteal Phase
- Signaled by LH surge - Estrogen and Progesterone - **Progesterone provides NEGATIVE feedback on HPA... keeps FSH and LH low**
112
Epipen
- Makes bronchioles dilate
113
Insulin resistance location
- Can develop at any point along the phosphorylation cascade
114
H Zone
- Myosin alone with no actin - Heavy
115
Sarcomere length and muscle velocity
- Small sarcomeres lined up have to work less hard - Long sarcomeres lined up work harder
116
What does smooth muscle do?
- Sphincters - GI tract - Vaso constriction/ dilation
117
Where progesterone acts
- Hypothalamus - Acts **indirectly** on the neurons that make GnRH - GnRH neurons connected to the rest of the brain by other neurons - Progesterone acts on *those*
118
GLUT 3
- Brain neurons and tissue - High affinity for glucose
119
Regulatory Ion of Smooth Muscle
Calcium 2+
120
Biological Clock
- Regulated by hypothalamus - Secretion of cortisol is expression - Part of circadian rhythm
121
Posterior Pituitary Origin
- Outgrowth of hypothalamus
122
PTH and Kidneys
- Increase Ca reabsorption - Decrease Ca in urine
123
GLP 1
- Glucagon like peptide - Incretin
124
Cortisol and time of day
- Biological clock - Fluctuate over 24 hours - High 4am to 8am... prepped metabolically for the day
125
Osteoblast
- Builds bone... lays down new bone - On the outside of the osteon... goes through maturation and works its way inward - Matures into osteocyte
126
Vasopressin
- Post. Pit - Acts on blood vesses (esp. arteries) - Causes constriction which helps to increase blood pressure
127
How testis make testosterone
- Leydig cells - Testosterone diffuses out of leydig cells into Semineferous Tubules to help with maturation of sperm - Diffuses into blood too
128
Z- Line
- Proteins that differentiate the end of the sarcomere
129
Sertoli Cell
- Make inhibin - Interact with spermatogonia
130
Taking GH...
- Cannot take orally - Inject in blood - Because protein
131
Euthyroid
- Normal thyroid hormone - important for.... Metabolic Rate Oxygen Consumption Body Temp Effects on the CNS
132
Myofibril
- Long thread of protein - 1-2 microns in diameter - Runs end to end - Made up of sarcomeres
133
Type IIa Muscle
- Fast Oxidative - More red - Fast ATPase - More capillaries - More ox capacity - High SR activity - In runners
134
Master Gland
- Old name for anterior pituitary
135
Infundibulum
- Connects pituitary and hypothalamus
136
GLUT 5
- Fructose transporters in small intestine - Medium affinity for glucose
137
Dwarfism
- Unde secretion of GH - Can correct now with biotech
138
Sarcomere Contraction
- A band stays the same - I band gets shorter - H band gets shorter
139
Blood sugar regulation hormones
- Insulin - Glucagon
140
Sarcolemma
- Muscle fiber membrane
141
CaM
- Calmodulin - Can bind 4 Ca - Removes caldesmon and calponin regulatory proteins
142
MHC Gene
- Type I diabetes - Major histocompatibility complex
143
Two main hormones of Posterior Pit.
- Oxytocin - Vasopressin
144
Glucose Intolerance
- Type II diabetes - Do not handle glucose well
145
What causes insulin secretion?
- Increase blood glucose (after you eat) - Increase AA - Increase in Vagal activity - Incretins
146
Prolactin
- Ant. Pit - Hypothalamus signals release - Acts on mammary tissue to stimulate milk synthesis
147
Cortisol and immune effects
- Decrease allergic response - Decrease ability to form antibodies - Decrease histamine (from MAST cells) -- **anti inflammatory**
148
Three major hormones with Ca regulation
PTH Calcitonin Vitamin D
149
How peptide hormones get into cells
- Cannot cross membrane - Binds receptor - Receptor does signal transduction
150
Ketoacidosis
- Acidic blood pH - too high --\> coma - Will cause death if untreated
151
Adrenal Medulla and Heart
- + Chrono and ino - Increase cardiac output - Increase coronary blood flow - Act on beta adrenergic receptors - Increase BP
152
Hypothalmus to Ant. Pit
- TRH stimulates ant pit
153
GH and Protein Anabolic
- Increase protein synthesis - As you grow, muscles and organs get bigger because laying down protein - Need energy to promote growth
154
TRH
- Released by hypothalamus - Stimulates production of TSH in anterior pituigary - Negative feedback from T3 and T4
155
Four Major Classes of Receptors
- Nuclear Hormone Receptors (for steroids) - Ligand-Gated Ion Channels - G-Protein Coupled Receptors - Enzyme linked receptors
156
Adrenal Medulla
- Extension of sympathetic nervous system - Release epinephrine
157
T-Tubules
- Connective tubule system in muscle fiber
158
Bone Growth
- From epiphyseal plate - Cartilage - Then ossified
159
Oxytocin + Uterus
- Birth - Oxytocin speeds up strength of uterine contraction - Receptors in greater intensity near top of uterus, less at bottom (proper movement DOWN)
160
LH
- Ant. Pit. - Luteinizing hormone - Peptide
161
Metformin (Glucophage)
- Type II Diabetes Treamtn - Degrease HGO - Increase insulin sensitivity in peripheral tissues
162
Glucagon and Adipole Tissue
- Lipolytic... promote lipolysis
163
Osteon
- Turns over bone - Every 11 months
164
Thryoid to Blood
- T3 and T4 - Negative feedback to stop TRH
165
Signal for muscle to contract
- Increase in Ca in the cytoplasm .... above 10^-7 Molar
166
Aldosterone
- Z. Glo **- mineralcorticoid** - Regulates Na and K - Acts on kidney - causes Na retention - causes K excretion
167
Treatment for Type I diabetes
- Administer insulin
168
Growth Hormone
- Somatotropin 2 Actions: Metabolic, Growth
169
Alpha Cells
- Islets of Langerhans - Make hormone **glucagon**
170
Osteoclasts
- Macrophages from the immune system - Invade bone and result in serious bone resorption
171
Regulatory Proteins in Smooth Muscle (Actin)
- Caldesmon - Calponin
172
Hyperglycemic
Increase blood glucose
173
Testosterone Inhibits
Hypothalamus (GNRH) Anterior Pituitary (FSH and LH)
174
No tetanus in heart... why?
- Cannot bring a second electrical stimulus - Good!
175
Creatine phosphate
- Take a phosphate and donate it to ADP to help regenerate ATP in muscle
176
Glucose tolerance test
- Come in fasted - Monitor blood gluocse over time - Drink sugary drink
177
Thyroid Colloid
- Inside - Stored thyroid hormone
178
Cortisol Actions
- Metabolic hormone - Immune effects - Cardiovascular system - Bone - Kidney
179
GLUT 1
- Brain vaculature, RBC, all tissues - High affinity for glucose
180
I-Band
- Isotropic... just one type of protein
181
Cortisol as a metabolic hormone
- Hyperglycemic - Increase lipolysis - Decrease glucose utilization - Decrease insulin sensitivity **- gluconeogenic**
182
Resistin
Generates insulin resistance
183
Mechanism of Smooth Muscle Contraction
1. Release NT around varicosity... diffuse into cell 2. Ca into the cell and binds to CaM 3. CaM removes caldesmon and calponin from actin 4. Myosin kinase phosphorylates serines on myosin 5. Phosphorylated myosin binds to actin and forms crossbridge 6. Phosphatase enter and remove phosphate off myosin so A and M can detach... system reset
184
Glycogen
- Stored glucose - Break it down into glucose - Need glucose for anaerobic component
185
Adult Rickets
Osteomalacia - Weak bones - Malformations
186
Increase # Mito in Cells
- Especially endurance trainging - Also increases metabolic rate
187
External Development of Male Genitalia
- From DHT
188
Sertoli Cells
- Make inhibin - Involved in sperm maturation - keep track of number of sperm being made - Communicate sperm number to pituitary via inhibin
189
Intracellular Receptor
- Receptor inside the cell - Steroid hormones - Act on nucleus Change gene transcription
190
Zona Fasciculata and Zona Reticularis
- Make a glucocortiocid (mainly cortisol) - Also cortisone and corticosterone
191
ADH and Vasopressin Work Together
- Dehydration = lower blood volume... decrease blood pressure - Secrete ADH to conserve water... increase BP - Vasopressin also increases BP
192
Polyurea
- Increase urine flow
193
Neurohemal
- Release hormone to blood - Posterior pituitary
194
Active form of Vidamin D Hormone
- Calcitriol - From reaction of vitamin D3 and 1-alpha- hydroxylase in kidneys
195
Maximum tension in a WHOLE muscle depends on
1. Recruitment of motor units 2. Size of motor units
196
PTH and Intestine
- Helps Vitamin D action with Ca absorption
197
Actin and Myosin in Smooth Muscle
- Set up like mesh inside cell - Have protein anchors in cell membrane and cytoplasm - Sarcomeres attached
198
Steroid Hormone Receptors
Ligand activated site specific DNA binding proteins - in cytoplasm - Hormone enters cell via membrane diffusion and brings the compex to the nucleus - Regulates gene transcription (turns on and off genes)
199
Leptin in humans
- Amount of leptin in blood is proportional to fat tissue - As body fat increases, amount of leptin increases - If leptin levels too low, can stop reproductive cycle in women - Too high get leptin resistance
200
Bones and Ca
- Calcium storage
201
Sarcomere at Resting Length
- Optimized a/m overlap - Optimized # crossbridges
202
Serum Ca and PTH
- Decrease Ca, Increase PTH
203
Titin
- Structural protein in actin - Provides elasticity - Stabilize sarcomere Z to Z
204
DHEA
- Dehydropiandosterone - Male like hormone - From Zona Reticularis - Can be metabolized to testosterone - Test --\> est in adipose tissue - In postmenopausal women... source of DHEA available throug DHEA... why a little adipose tissue is good!
205
Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis) Location
- Lies in sella turcica - Outlet to brain via hypothalamus by infundibulum - Anterior and Posterior
206
Things that use calcium
Nerves Synapses Muscle
207
Pendrin
- Transporter that moves iodine into the colloid
208
Hypoglycemic Hormones
Insulin
209
Spermatogonia
- Immature sperm - Hang out along the edges of the smineferous tubules - Move in as they mature into spermatids - In close contact with sertoli cells
210
ACTH on Kidney
Maintain Z. Glo
211
Path of hormone in post. pit.
- Made at cell body - Transport down axon - Into blood
212
Cushing's Disease
- Elevated Cortisol - Increase HGO - Muscle weakness - Increase urea production - Central obesity - Easily bruised skin - Increase response to sympathetic activation - Hypertension - Increased mieralcorticoid activity (aldosterone).... increase Na retention, decrease K levels
213
Optic Chiasm
- Info from one eye to another - Right by hypothalaus
214
FSH and Testis
* FSH stimulate sertoli cells * Sertoli cells involved in sperm maturation * Sertoli cells keep track of number of sperm being made… communicate that to the pituitary via inhibin
215
Anaerobic Threshold
- Has to do with metabolizing lactic acid - More you train, the better your liver gets at the cori cycle
216
Smooth Muscle Morphology
- Increase surface to volume ratio (high surface area per volume) - Small cells (2-5 micron diameter) - 100-400 micrometers long
217
Which is more active, T3 or T4?
T3
218
Crossbridge Formation
1. Ca levels increase 2. Ca binds to troponin 3. Tropo-Ca pulls toptomyosin away from actin's myosin binding site 4. Myosin binds to active and completes power stroke 5. Actin filament moves
219
Fasting Glucose
- Good indicator of glucose tolerance level - Normal... 100 mg % or below - Intolerant is around 125 mg %
220
How to get Type I Diabetes
- Gene - Virus... immune system responds and makes antibodies for beta cells in pancreas - immune system destroys beta cells over months
221
Leydig Cells
- Make testosterone
222
Isotonic Study
- muscle anchored to a displacement transducer and weight pan
223
How steroid hormones get into cells
- Can move in via cell membranes - Bind an intracellular receptor - Acts on nucleus - Change in gene transcription
224
Cortisol and Bones
- Decrease osteoblast activity - Decrease new bone formation
225
Somatostatin
- From D cells - Turn off secretion of glucacgon and insulin
226
Cortisol and cardiovascular system
- Maintain alpha 1 receptors for norepinephrine
227
Anterior Pituitary Origin
- Tissue buds developmentally from roof of mouth
228
Increase [Ca] in cytoplasm
- Calcium binds troponin - Change shape troponin - Change shape of tropomyosin - Tropomyosin slides away and allows myosin head to interact with actin - Finish hydrolyzing ADPPhosphate to ADP +Pi .... use energy to rotate head and move actin
229
What hormones actually do
- Change rate function within the target cell
230
Testosterone and Central Nervous System
- Sexual behavior - Libido
231
G-Protein Coupled Receptor Names
GPCR or 7TM
232
Load and muscle velocity
- Greater load, lower speed
233
things that can influence muscle velocity (speed of contraction)
1. ATPase type 2. Load 3. Sarcomere length
234
Polydipsia
- Drink more
235
Decrease in cortisol HPA axis
- Less negative feedback for HPA axis - Increase CRH from hypothalamus - Increase ACTH
236
Myxedema
- Fluid accumulates under the skin - Due to accumulation in glycoprotein - Hypothyroid
237
Troponin C
-Subunit on troponin to which Ca binds causes a conformation change
238
Oral Insulin
Causes beta cells to secrete more insulin
239
Adrenal Medulla Target Tissues
- Heart - Skeletal Muscle - Adipose Tissue - Liver - Lungs
240
Fast Twitch Fiber
- Larger diameter - Pale color - Fatigue easy
241
Phases of the ovarian cycle
Follicular (first 14 days) Lutela (last 14 days)
242
Paracrine Regulation
- Cells talk to neighbors (diffusion) - I.e. Gonad
243
Growth Hormone + Metabolic
- Hyperglycemic - Lipolytic
244
Osteopetrosis
- When bone does not turn over
245
PTH
Parathyroid hormone - Hypercalcemic (increases plasma Ca) - Peptide hormone
246
Growth Hormone - Lipolytic
- Store fats as triglycerides - Break down trigylcerides into FFA
247
Hyperplasia
Increase cell size Exhibited in muscles
248
TSH
- Ant. Pit. - Thyroid Stimulating Hormone - Peptide
249
Calcitriol
Active form of Vitamin D Hypercalcemic
250
Adipose tissue + adrenal medulla
- Lipolytic - Beta receptor
251
Castrated Animal
- Removes testosterone - Increase in FSH and LH - If you treat with tesosterone.... decrease LH but not FSH
252
Hypothyroid
- Not enough thyroid hormone - Decrease in MR - Feel tired, cold - Depression, fatigue
253
Two types of ATPasw
- Fast - Slow
254
Three forms of testosterone at cellular level
1. testosterone 2. becomes DHT 3. becomes estrogen
255
Gh and Bone Growth
Stimulates bone growth - Growth plate - Maturation
256
Effects of Hemicastration
- Initial increase in FSH - Remaining teste undergoes compensatory hypertrophy - Eventually get a decrease in FSH as sperm production increases - Increase sperm production increases inihibin which decreases FSH
257
Timing for Hormones
- Steroids... take a few hours - cAMP is FAST, minutes
258
Reinnervation Experiments
- Take type I cell - Remove type I axon and re innervate with type II - Cell is now type II - Re innervation happens at ACh receptor site - Can do same thing in reverse...
259
Relaxed State Myosin Head
- Myosin head cocked - Close proximity of myosin head and actin - ATP is partially hydrolyzed
260
Acromegaly
- Over secretion of GH in adult - Hands, face, feet respond... disfigurement - Can be caught early - Metabolic issues too
261
ob/ob mouse
- Homozygous... becomes obese - Parabiose with normal, gets thin - Tells us there is something in the blood that makes it obese - Jeffrey Friedman... discovered leptin - OBOB has **defective leptin** - Gets normal leptin from the normal mouse
262
F- Actin
- Filamentus actin - Made of double helix of G-Actin
263
Type IIb Muscle
- Fast Glycolytic - White fibers - Easy fatigue - Low ox capacity (fewer mito) - High SR activity
264
Maximum tension in a muscle fiber (cell) depends on
1. Number of cross bridges formed 2. Muscle length 3. Muscle type (fast or slow due to ATPase)
265
Cortisol Metabolic Actions
- Hyperclycemic - Increase lipolysis
266
Autocrine Regulation
- Cells talk to themselves - Release peptide or something and bind to cells to change and do something else
267
Norepinephrine receptors
alpha
268
Protein Turnover in Skeletal Muscle
- Every 6 Weeks or so
269
Osteocyte
- Mature osteoblast - Causes bone resorption (take away Ca) aka osteocytic osteolysis
270
Actin Regulatory Proteins
Troponin (every 7 G actin) Tropomyosin
271
Distance Shortened vs. Time
- Dist/Time = Velocity
272
Stress
- Make cortisol when stressed
273
Oxytocin + Breast Tissue
- Infant suckle sends signal to hypothalamus - Stimulates neurosec. neurons which end in post. pit - Release oxytocin to blood --\> mammary gland - Milk letodwn
274
Hyperinsulinemia
- To get over insulin resistance, body makes excess insulin - Type II diabetes
275
Goiter
- Increase TSH - Hyperplasia and hypertrophy
276
Anterior Pituitary Overview
- Celles are distinctly separate
277
Ghrelin
- Act on hypothalamus to increase appetite - Also increase GH - GH = hyperglycemic.... Ghrelin released when blood sugar is low
278
PTH
- Secreted when Ca levels are **low** - Acts on... Bone Kidney Intestine
279
Feedback in Luteal Phase
- Progesterone provides negative feedback on the HPA - Keeps FSH and LH low
280
HPA Axis
**Hypothalamus** CRH (+) **Anterior Pituitary** ACTH (+) **Adrenal Cortex** Cortisol (- on ant. pit, hypo)
281
Graves Antibody
- Agonist - Used to be called LATS (long acting thyroid stimulator) - Made in immune system - Causes decrease in TRH and TSH
282
Why do anabolic steroids shrink testis?
- Decrease GNRH, FSH, and LH
283
What training does
- Increase glycogen storage - Increase # mitochondria in muscle cells - Increase anaerobic threshold
284
Oxytocin
- Peptide - Smooth muscle contraction - Breast tissue + uterus
285
Isotonic
- Constant tension - Measure muscle shortening
286
Cortisol on skeletal muscle
- Causes protein catabolism - Release AA into blood - AA circulate to liver where convert to glucose **Gluconeogenesis**
287
Renin Angiotensin System
- Regulates K levels
288
Epinephrine receptors
beta
289
Synthroid
Mix of T3 and T4
290
How G Protein System Works
- Hormone binds receptor stimulating G Protein - G protein turns on **adenylate cyclase**... takes AMP and makes cAMP - Increase levels of cAMP in cell - cAMP binds protein kinase which phosphorylates proteins
291
Leptin
- Peptide hormone - Made when adipose tissue sees glucose - Goes into blood and acts on CNS (hypothalamus) - Decreases level of NPY neurotransmitter... decreases appetite
292
HGO
- Hepatic glucose output
293
Seminiferous Tubules
- Where sperm are made in the testis - Can see spermatogonia on the outside - As they mature, move into the tubules and become spermatids
294
Healthy blood sugar level
100 mg %
295
RyR
- Protein in sarcoplasmic reticulum - Activated by DHP - Opens calcium channels.... Ca leaves SR and dumps into cytoplasm
296
Osteocytic Osteolysis
- Osteocytes cause bone resoprtion... remove Ca - Every 11 months Ca is turned over
297
Economy of Force Equation
EOF = Force \* Time/ATP Used
298
Beta Cells
- Islets of Langerhans - Make insulin
299
Glucagon
- Peptide hormone from alpha cells - Secrete when blood glucose low - Acts to bring up blood sugar - Targets: liver and adipose tissue
300
Tissues involved in Ca Regulation
Bone Small intestine... absorb Kidney... excrete
301
GLUT 4 Location and Km
- Muscle, fat cells - Medium affinity for glucose
302
Gene in type I diabetes
- MHC Gene - 50%
303
M-Line
- Middle of the mysoin
304
Caveolae
- In-folds on smooth muscle membrane - Conserve Ca and increase surface area
305
Other types of regulation that are not endocrine
- Paracrine - Autocrine
306
Zona Reticularis
- Make DHEA
307
Testosterone as a Metabolic Hormone
- Anabolic - Increases protein synthesis - Increase # RBC - Testosterone is lipolytic - Promotes closure of the epiphyseal disc during puberty
308
ACh --\> Contraction
- AP down motor axon releases ACh.... - ACh binds to nicotinic Channel (increase g Na and g K --\> LCF --\> AP in muscle membrane) - AP sent down T-Tubule and stimulates DHP - DHP interacts with RyR... open Ca channels, Ca into cytoplasm
309
Osteon
Functional group of the bone - Osteoblasts - Osteoclasts - Osteocytes
310
Testosterone and Secondary Sexual Characteristics
- Distribution of body hair - Deepening of boice - Acts on sebaceous glands.... overstimulation = acne
311
Somatomedin Hypothesis
- "Growth Mediator" - Ant. Pit. releases growth hormone which acts on the liver which makes IGF-1
312
Daughaday Flaw
- Wasn't sensistive enough - TH... backup system to make bone grow - IGF in blood negative feedback tohelp regulate growth hormone Much more complex than he gave credit for
313
Axon and Muscle
- Stimulates contraction of muscle - Gives cell information abuot what type of muscle cell it is going to be - Set up in development
314
Somatostatin Effects on GH
Decrease GH
315
Incretins
- From GI tract (intestine) - 2 peptides (GLP1 and GIP) - Causes insulin secretion
316
Calcium Absorption in Small Intestine
400-500 mg Ca in the GI tract per meal
317
Jet Lag
- Travel faster than your biological clock
318
Protein Anabolic
- Increase protein synthesis
319
Islets of Langerhans Cell Types
- Alpha - Beta - D
320
Steroid Hormones
- 27 C, based on cholesterole - Modified through series of enzyme reactions - Not very water soluble
321
Follicular Phase Overview
- First 14 days - Follicles develop in ovary - **Peak of FSH** promotes follicular development - Follicles make estrogen **(increase estrogen)**
322
Achondroplastic Dwarf
- Have GH - Lack specific fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 - Normal head, hands, fet - Short torso
323
Calcitonin
- Hypocalcemic - Secreted when there is an increase of Ca in plasma - Acts on one - More important in juvelies
324
Thyroid Structure
- Up along windpipe - L and R lobes - Connects by ismus - Follicle cell layer - Inside is the colloid
325
Initiation of contraction
- ATP fully hydrolyzed to ADP + Pi
326
Nutrition and Growth
- Nutrients --\> liver - Good nutrition more IGF-I - Growth - Connection between endocrine control, growth, nutrition
327
Isometric
- Keep length of muscle constant - Measure tension development
328
Pancreas Endocrine
- Blood Islets of Langerhans
329
Adiponectin
- Hormone from adipose tissue - Target is skeletal muscle - Increase insulin sensitivity in skeletal muscle
330
Estrogen and Testosterone act more on....
LH
331
Calcitonin and Bone
- Decrease osteocytic osteolysis - Decrease osteoclast formation
332
Nebulin
- Structural protein in actin - Runs through the middle - Helps align actin
333
Action potential in cardiac muscle
- LONG - Couple of hundred msec - Heart muscle cannot tetanize
334
Adrenal medulla + liver
- Increase glycogenolysis - Increase HGO
335
Hemoglobin A1C
- Glycosylated hb - non eznymatic glycation - Test shows glucose control over a long period of time Normal: 5.7% or below Prediabetic: 5.7- 6.4% Diabetic 6.5% +
336
Why is calcitonin likely more useful for juveniles?
- Higher Ca in diet
337
Frank-Starling
- FOC proprotational to amount of blood - More blood, more stretch - Get slightly betwtter A/M overlap and crossbridge - With heart stretch, better overlap, more cross, more force!
338
Oxytocin in Males
- Smooth muscle contraction in reproductive tract for ejaculation of sperm
339
Insulin Basics
- Peptide hormone - 1 long chain - Proinsulin --\> active form
340
Adrenal Cortex
- Outer adrenal gland - Makes steroid hormones - Three layers = Zonas.... glomerulosa, fasciculata, reticularis
341
ADH
- Post. Pit. - Antidiuretic Hormone - Acts on kidney to decrease urine flow and increase water retention
342
Tetanus
- Given enough stimulation to complete a full smooth contraction
343
FSH
- Ant Pit - Follicle stimulating hormone - Peptide
344
Anterior Pituitary Hormones
**FLAT PiG** (All peptide) FSH LH ACTH TSH Prolactin GH
345
Three organs in type II diabetes
Liver Skeletal muscle Adipose Tissue
346
Visceral Smooth Muscle
- Gap junctions... transmit electrical signals from cell to cell - Can contract spontaneously (one cell contracts and others follow in wave) - Less innervation than multi
347
What Coffee Does
- Inhibits PDE - Increase urination - Increase glomerular filtration rate in kidneys - Boost liver, increase glycogen
348
Stress and muscle cells
- Training makes your muscles BIGGER ... does not change the number of cells, just increases the number of myofibrils
349
Where do you get ATP
- Glycosysis - Oxidative phosphorylation
350
Central obesity
- Symptom of Cushing's - Deposits of fat around central part of the body - Oftentimes striations
351
Male Endocrine System
**Hypothalamus** - GNRH **Anterior Pituitary** - LH - FSH **Testis** - Testosterone (negative on Ant.Pit. and Hypo) - Inhibin (Decrease FSH)
352
Classical Divisions for Smooth Muscle
- Multi Unit - Visceral
353
Third source of ATP for muscle
- Creatine phoshphate can take phosphate and donate it to ADP to help regenerate ATP pool - Resting while working out... regenerate ATP pool with creatine phosphate
354
Nursing as Birth Control
- While nursing, decrease production of LH and FSH - No ovulaiton
355
Graves Disease
- Autoimmune - Body makes antibody that acts on TSH receptor - Antibody is an **agonist** - Increase T3 and T4... hyperthyroid - Diagnose by measuring T3, T4, and TSH
356
Myosin
- Thick filaments
357
Lactic Acid Buildup
- Contributes to fatigue - Not the whole story
358
Multi Unit Smooth Muscle - Iris
- External stimulus for contraction - No action potential - Let Ca do its thing
359
Timing of muscles
- Lag time between electrical signaling and when you see tension
360
Db/Db Mouse
- Obese and diabetic - Parabiose to normal mouse - Stays obese - **Defective leptin receptor**
361
X-int of Velocity vs. Load
- Reflects number of crossbridges
362
Negative Feedback Example
- T3 and T4 negative feedback on hypothalamus - Stop TRH
363
What signals the start of the luteal phase?
- Estrogen from follicle cells --\> HPA --\> secrete LH
364
Metabolic Syndrom Consequences
- Increase cardiovascular disease - Decrease wound healing - Increase kidney disease - Increase blindness - Increase nerve pain (due to decrease myelination)
365
Lipolytic
Mobilize free fatty acids
366
Thyroid Biochemistry
- Tyrosine coupled with another tyrosine to make hormones - 3 Iodine .... T3 - 4 Iodine... T4
367
Proinsulin
- Three sets of disulfide bonds that form this structure - Clip off C peptide to make active
368
Contractile componenets
- Actin, myosin, crossbridge cycle
369
Breaking up Actin and Myosin
- Bring in fresh ATP - Causes a steric change that will allow you to separate them - Partially hydrolyze it... next cycle!
370
NPY Neurotransmitter
- Acted on by leptin - Controls appetite - Decrease NPY, decrease appetite
371
Metabolic Hormone
- Increase protein synthesis - Hyperglycemic - Lipolytic - Energy mobilizer
372
Different Biochemical Hormone Types
- Tyrosine Derivative - Steroid - Protein/Peptide - Prostaglandins
373
Adiponectin and Fat
- Increase fat, decrease plasma adiponectin - Skeletal muscle become insulin resistant
374
Renal blood flow
Blood flow to the kidneys
375
Role of reproductive endocrinology in males
- Produce sperm - Produce testosterone
376
Endocrine System Overview
- Hormones from glands - Small quantities - Circulate and act on target tissue - Broad and specific
377
Inhibin Inhibits (Male)
FSH
378
What defines a target tissue?
RECEPTORS
379
GIP
Glucose independent insulinotrophic peptide - Incretins
380
Metabolic Syndrome
- Type II Diabetes is an example - Hyperinsulinemia - Insulin resistance - Glucose intolerance - Hyerlipidemia - Hyertriglyeridemia - Hypertension
381
Beta Cell Exhaustion
- From hyperinsulinemia - Beta cells just wear out - Type II diabetes
382
Heterolagous Disease
- Multiple sources or causes result in the same clinical picture - I.e. Type II Diabetes
383
Tension vs. Freq
Y: Tension X: Freq Twitch --\> wave summation --\> tetanus
384
G- Protein Receptors
- Receptors coupled to G proteins - Signal transduction starts with G protein - Uses **cAMP as a secondary messenger**
385
IGF-I
- Insulin like growth factor 1 - Peptide - Similar to insulin **- Acts on bone causing it to grow** - Bone itself also makes IGF-I and can act in autocrine paracrine matter - GH can act on bone too
386
Prednisone Taper
- Large dose of cortisol.... decrease CRH, ACTH, cortisol from body - If you come off too quickly, do not have own cortisol - **Decrease alpha-1 receptors, decrease blood pressure, pass out.**
387
Working out and muscles
- Stress muscles - Micro tears - Lay down more protein/ number of myofibrils and sarcomeres - Increasing number of sarcomeres in parallel and increase ability to generate tension
388
Smooth Muscle Cell
- Long and small - Nucleated - No SR - No T Tubule - No troponin and tropomyosin
389
Insulin Actions
- Increase cell permeability to glucose - Increase glycogen storage in the liver + skeletal muscle - Decrease gluconeogensis - Increase AA transport into cells - Increase lipogeneiss in adipose - Increase K into cells
390
Motor Unit
Motor neuron and the skeletal muscle cell/fiber it innervates... the size of the motor unit varies
391
Thyroid responds to increase TSH by
- Hyperplasia and hypertrophy - Increase cell number and size - GOITER
392
Hashimoto's Disease
- Immune system makes antagonistic antibody to block TSH receptor - Decrease T3 and T4 - Sluggish and fatigued - Increase TRH and TSH - With extra TSH to act on thyroid... possible for TSH to outcompete antiboid - Hypothyroid in waves - When negative feedback kicks in go euthyroid - More antagonist go to hypo
393
Sliding filament theory
- Myosin heads pull actin together... shorten sarcomere - Contraction
394
Skeletal muscle + adrenal medulla
- increase blood flow - increase beta adrenergic receptors
395
Girls mature first because
- Hypothalamic axis matures first
396
Gluconeogenic
- Make glucose from new sources
397
Deiodinase
- Enzyme - Converts T4 to T3 - Can make active form of hormone in target tissue

Bio II (6 decks)

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