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NUR 363 Sam Fox > Exam prep week 9 (qualitative and quantitative data collection) - wk 10 (Ethics in Nursing) > Flashcards

Exam prep week 9 (qualitative and quantitative data collection) - wk 10 (Ethics in Nursing) Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 2 data collection methods in qualitative research?

A

Direct

Indirect

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2
Q

Explain the ‘direct’ data collection method for qualitative research

A

Most common in qualitative research
Recordable spoken or written words
Observable body language, actions & interactions
i.e. whatever can be observed or communicated

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3
Q

Explain the ‘indirect’ data collection method for qualitative research

A

Generated by some other person or people

eg documents, photographs reporting an event

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4
Q

Qualitative Data Collection Methods include?

A

Interviews
Journal entries/other written data
Observation (generally participant)
Examination of documents

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5
Q

Qualitative Data Collection Methods: Interviews include

A 
Individuals
Direct encounter
Phone interviews
Via email
Non-scheduled
Groups (focus groups)
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6
Q

Qualitative Data Collection Methods: Interviewing considerations

A

How structured: -unstructured

  - semi-structured
  - structured

How recorded: eg digital (audio/video), notes

Where held: eg home, workplace, phone

Ethical issues (confidentiality, vulnerability)

Informed consent

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7
Q

Qualitative Data Collection Methods: Benefits of Interviews

A

Provide researcher with opportunity to enter world of participant

Offer unique data

Potentially productive opportunity

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8
Q

Qualitative Data Collection Methods: Journal Entries

A

Obtain information about dynamic processes before experience forgotten

Rely upon commitment, time & neatness of participant

Can be difficult to read & analyse data

Open-ended questions may provide helpful data

Ethical issues: confidentiality

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9
Q

Qualitative Data Collection Methods: Observation

A

Observing daily life & behaviours

Data in more natural circumstances

More prone to subjective interpretation

Ethical issues: confidentiality, vulnerability

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10
Q

Qualitative Data Collection Methods: Documents and Records

A

Patient notes

Historical documents

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11
Q

Qualitative Data Collection Methods: Rigor/Trustworthiness

A

Strict process of data collection & analysis reflected in:

Credibility (truthfulness)

Auditability (consistency)

Transferability (fittingness/applicability)

Confirmability (no bias or distortion)

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12
Q

Two major ways for error to be introduced in qualitative research:

A
  1. Data collection

2. Data analysis

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13
Q

(Exam)

Qualitative Data Collection Methods need to include: Credibility

A

Overlaps with transferability and trustworthiness

Triangulation

Refers to confidence in truth of findings

Uses member checks with participants and other researchers

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14
Q

(Exam)

Qualitative Data Collection Methods need to include: Auditability

A

Accountability of researchers

Use audit trail

Careful recording of all decisions made regarding design plan, sampling, data collection and analysis

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15
Q

(Exam)

Qualitative Data Collection Methods need to include: Transferability

A

Extent to which findings applicable to different population

Differs from generalisability: focus not on predicting specific outcomes

Rather focus on confirming what was meaningful in one specific setting/group also meaningful in another

External checks to ensure findings applicable to other groups/settings

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16
Q

(Exam)

Qualitative Data Collection Methods need to include: Confirmability

A

Consistency & repeatability

Data collection process clearly documented - Audit trails

Use of computer software to organise and analyse data

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17
Q

(exam)

What are the 4 aspects of Rigor/Trustworthiness?

A
  1. Credibility
  2. Auditability
  3. Transferability
  4. Confirmability
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18
Q

To achieve trustworthiness in qualitative research…

A

Researcher competence
Transparency of research process (decision trail)
Congruence between philosophical and methodological approaches for the study

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19
Q

Data Collection in Quantitative Research measures?

A

Measures variables clearly, specifically and accurately

Measures variables numerically- can be statistically analysed

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20
Q

Measurement of Variables

A

Use objective measures

Distinguish between independent (predictor) & dependent (outcome) variables

Occurs with reference to operational definition of the variable (not theoretical)

Must result in numbers for statistical analysis

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21
Q

The 2 variables are?

A

Independent (predictor)
eg. the medication

Dependent (outcome)
eg. did the medication work? /fix the problem?

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22
Q

Variable example: Does the amount of study affect student’s test results?

Independent variable?

Dependent variable?

A

Independent variable?
= Study

Dependent variable?
= test results

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23
Q

What are the 4 Quantitative Data Collection Methods?

A

Physiologic/laboratory-based

Observational

Questions & self-report scales- questionnaires

Interviews

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24
Q

Quantitative Data Collection Methods:

Physiologic/Laboratory-based Measures

A

Carefully described to demonstrate appropriateness

Describe measures to ensure consistency

25
Q

Quantitative Data Collection Methods:

Observations

A

Systematic

Focus on specific areas carefully defined in data collection instrument

Must be consistently reproduced- require adequate detail in description

26
Q

Quantitative Data Collection Methods: Questionnaires

A

To collect data

Scales (eg Carer Satisfaction Scale- CSS)

Items

Response options examples:

(Dichotomous - Yes/NO, Male/Female

Likert - scale 1 - 5

Visual analogue - excellent to bad

27
Q

Quantitative Data Collection Methods: Questionnaires example

A

Instrument: specifies & objectifies the process of data collection
eg Written instructions for a focused observation of behaviours indicating pain
Questionnaire: instrument completed by study subjects
eg 3 page written form asking subjects about their personal characteristics, medications, past medical history & pain
Scale: set of written questions/statements that measures a specific variable
eg 3 questions that ask subjects to rate how often they experience pain in different situations
Item: individual question/statement that comprises a scale
eg how often do you wake up at night due to pain
0=never 1=rarely 2=occasionally 3=frequently

28
Q

Quantitative Data Collection Methods:

Error

A

Refers to error in measurement

May result from measurement process itself

May result from quality of the measures: reliability & validity

29
Q

Quantitative Data Collection Methods:

Measurement Error

A

Reliability: consistency in measurement

Validity: extent to which it measures that which it purports to measure

30
Q

Reliability means:

A

that a measure can be relied upon consistently to give the same result if the aspect being measured has not changed

31
Q

Summary of Reliability

A

The reliability of a measure reflects how definite we can be that the measure will yield the same data consistently if the actual or “real” variable stays the same

32
Q

Reliability: explain…

Inter-rater, test-retest, internal consistency

A

Inter-rater:
2 or more independent data collectors agree in the results of their data collection

Test-retest:
expect consistency in the answers (on a scale or questionnaire) at different time points

Internal consistency:
the extent to which responses to a scale/questionnaire are similar and related

33
Q

(Exam)

Validity

A

Validity reflects how accurately the measure yields information about the true or real variable being measured.

A measure is valid if it measures correctly and accurately what it is intended to measure

eg. does the sphygmomanometer give accurate results every time

34
Q

Summary of Reliability and Validity

A

Reliability: focuses on the consistency of a measure

Validity: focuses on the accuracy/correctness of a measure

35
Q

Internal/External Validity

A

Findings must be believable & dependable

Two important criteria:

internal validity
External validity

36
Q

Internal Validity

A

Refers to whether intervention (independent variable) had real measurable effect on outcome (dependent) variable

Need to minimise threats to this eg:

selection bias
mortality
Maturation
Problems with instrumentation

37
Q 
Internal Validity:
selection bias
mortality
Maturation
Problems with instrumentation
A

Selection bias: sample needs to be representative of population. Self-selection a problem

Mortality: participants drop out of study

Maturation: Developmental, biological or psychological processes of individual that change over time- may affect study variable

Instrumentation: Changes in measurement or observation techniques- may influence measurement

38
Q

External Validity

A

Refers to generalisability of findings to other populations &/or settings

Factors affecting related to:
selection of participants: selection bias, mortality, maturation
study conditions
types of observations

39
Q

Ethics in Research

A

Protecting rights of subjects

Balance of benefits and risks

Informed consent

Ethics committee review

40
Q

History of Ethical Codes in Research

A

WW11- German Doctors’ criminal experiments without consent
Led to Nuremberg Code (1946)
Universal declaration of Human Rights (1948)
World Medical Association: International Code of Medical Ethics
Declaration of Geneva (1949)
Declaration of Helsinki (1964)
UNESCO: Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights (2005)

41
Q

Nuremberg Code (1946)

A

Voluntary consent

Protection of subjects from harm

Benefits vs risks

Qualified researchers

42
Q

Declaration Of Helsinki (1964)

A

Most recent version 2008

Duty to protect life, health, privacy & dignity

Proposal submitted to independent ethics committee for approval

Special provisions for children & other groups unable to give consent

43
Q

Unethical Studies

A

Tuskagee Syphillis Trial (1932-62)

Cervical Cancer Study NZ 1966

44
Q

Autonomy & Individual Responsibility (Informed Consent)

A

No coercion, overt/implied

Participants have enough information

Information should be understandable to participants

45
Q

Elements of Informed Consent

A 
Title of agency
Invitation to participate
Basis for participant selection
Study purpose/aim
Explanation of procedures
Description of risks/benefits
Access to treatment and compensation if injury occurs
Voluntary participation
Right to withdraw
Assurance of confidentiality/anonymity
Conflicts of interests declared
Offer to answer any questions
Names & contacts of researchers, institution, ethics committee
Concluding statement 
Separate consent form
46
Q

Informed Consent for Children

A

Children, parents/guardians/caregivers must all be fully informed in appropriate manner
Children advised of rights
Children given opportunity to ask questions
Person signing must also be advised of rights & given opportunity for questions

47
Q

Privacy, Anonymity & Confidentiality

A

Privacy: concealment of all matters relating to the participants

Anonymity- no one should be able to identify study participants

Confidentiality- identities of subjects not linked to information provided: use of codes

48
Q

Privacy, Anonymity & Confidentiality:

- Privacy

A

Refers to keeping matters concealed- making sure not made public

Legal AND ethical requirement in Australia

Australian researchers must adhere to State and Federal laws

Involves protecting anonymity and confidentiality

49
Q

Privacy, Anonymity & Confidentiality:

- Anonymity

A

No person should be able to identify individuals in study
Not always possible with qualitative research
Can use pseudonyms (assumed names) or number codes
Geographical issues may hinder anonymity
Part of informed consent should alert participants to possibility of lack of anonymity

50
Q

Privacy, Anonymity & Confidentiality:

- Confidentiality

A

Identities of participants not linked to information provided

Data must be securely stored

Can be challenges in qualitative research

51
Q

Justice and Beneficence

A

Justice: risks and benefits distributed evenly

Beneficence: do good/prevent harm

52
Q

Human Vulnerability & Personal Integrity

A 
Protection of vulnerable groups:
Homeless
Refugees
Children
Prisoners
Intellectual disability
Ethnic minorities
Pregnant women
Dying patients
53
Q

Respect for Cultural Diversity

A 
Ethnicity
Sexual orientation
Religious affiliation
Employment status
Disability
Age
54
Q

Researcher Integrity & Honesty

A

Critical for conduct, reporting & publication of studies
Number of cases of previous research misconduct
Includes: fabrication, falsification, plagiarism
Does not include honest error or differences of opinion

55
Q

Multiple Cases of False Claims/Unethical Drug Trials

A

Tobacco industry: falsification of addictive nature of nicotine & passive smoking experiments

Pharmaceutical industry: Thalidomide & unethical third world drug trials

Fabricated results of stem cell research

56
Q

Legal & Ethical regulatory Mechanisms

A

International agreement but ensuring adherence problematic
NH&MRC
Agencies for ethical considerations of indigenous populations eg Western Australian Aboriginal Health Information & Ethics Committee (WAAHIEC)
Clinical trials in Australia must adhere to legal requirements of Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA)

57
Q

Evaluating & Monitoring Ethical Issues in Nursing Research

A

Standards for Research for the Nursing Profession (1990s)
Frequently re-endorsed by ANF
Ensure accountability for nursing research
Complementary to NH&MRC Guidelines
National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research (NH&MRC 2007)

58
Q

(Def in the exam) Critiquing Ethical Aspects of Research Reports

A 
Ethics committee approval
Informed consent
Protection of subjects
Subjects informed about purpose & nature of study
Potential risks
Benefits outweigh risks
No coercion
Privacy/anonymity/
confidentiality
59
Q

Ethics in Nursing Research

Objectives:

A

State the major ethical considerations for a researcher when conducting a study

Understand and elaborate on the core principles involved in research ethics

Discuss the principles involved in critiquing the ethical considerations in a research report

NUR 363 Sam Fox (8 decks)

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