EXAM SHIT Flashcards
(161 cards)
1
Q
What is the Burden of Proof fallacy?
A
Claiming that the responsibility to disprove an assertion lies with the skeptic, not the person making the claim
2
Q
What is an Ad Hominem fallacy?
A
Attacking the person instead of the argument.
3
Q
What is a Red Herring fallacy?
A
Introducing an irrelevant topic to divert attention from the main issue.
4
Q
What is a Straw Man fallacy?
A
Misrepresenting someone’s argument to make it easier to attack.
5
Q
What is Equivocation?
A
Using ambiguous language to mislead or misrepresent the truth.
6
Q
What is a Slippery Slope fallacy?
A
Arguing that a small first step will inevitably lead to a chain of negative events.
7
Q
What is a Hasty Generalisation?
A
Drawing a conclusion from insufficient or unrepresentative evidence.
8
Q
What is an Appeal to Authority?
A
Using an authority figure as evidence, even when they may not be an expert on the topic.
9
Q
What is a False Dilemma (False Dichotomy)?
A
Presenting two options as the only possibilities when more exist.
10
Q
What is the Bandwagon fallacy?
A
Arguing that something is true or right because “everyone is doing it.”
11
Q
What is the No True Scotsman fallacy?
A
Dismissing counterexamples by redefining the criteria to exclude them.
12
Q
What is a Circular Argument?
A
When the conclusion is included in the premise; reasoning in a circle.
13
Q
What is the Sunk Cost fallacy?
A
Continuing a course of action because of past investments, not future value.
14
Q
What is an Appeal to Pity?
A
Attempting to win an argument by exploiting emotions like guilt or sympathy.
15
Q
What is a Causal Fallacy (Post Hoc)?
A
Assuming that because one event followed another, it was caused by it.
16
Q
What is Epidemiology?
A
The study of the distribution and determinants of health and disease in populations.
17
Q
What is Phenomenology?
A
A qualitative research method focusing on individuals’ lived experiences.
18
Q
What is Ethnography?
A
A qualitative research approach that studies cultures and communities through immersion.
19
Q
What is Epistemology?
A
The branch of philosophy that investigates the nature, origin, and limits of human knowledge.
20
Q
What is Deductive Reasoning?
A
Reasoning from general principles to specific conclusions (top-down logic). If premises are true, the conclusion must be true.
21
Q
What is Inductive Reasoning?
A
Drawing general conclusions from specific observations (bottom-up logic). Conclusions are probable, not guaranteed.
22
Q
What is Abductive Reasoning?
A
Inference to the best explanation—choosing the most likely cause based on the evidence available.
23
Q
What is Face Validity?
A
The extent to which a test appears to measure what it is supposed to, based on superficial judgment.
24
Q
What is Science?
A
A systematic, evidence-based process of gaining knowledge through observation, experimentation, and logical reasoning.
25
What is Pseudoscience?
Claims or beliefs presented as scientific but lacking empirical support, reproducibility, or adherence to the scientific method.
26
How can you distinguish pseudoscience from science?
Science is falsifiable, peer-reviewed, and based on evidence. Pseudoscience often relies on anecdote, lacks transparency, and resists correction.
27
What is the EBP Triad?
1. Best available research evidence
2. Clinical expertise
3. Patient values and preferences
28
What are the 5 Steps of EBM?
Ask – Form a clear clinical question
Acquire – Find the best evidence
Appraise – Critically evaluate the evidence
Apply – Integrate with clinical expertise and patient values
Assess – Evaluate outcomes and reflect
29
What is Evidence Appropriatism?
A balanced view that considers evidence valuable but not absolute, and weighs it with clinical judgment and context.
30
What is Evidence Nihilism?
The rejection or undervaluing of evidence, often believing it is never trustworthy or useful.
31
What is Evidence Agendaism?
Selective use or distortion of evidence to support a pre-existing agenda or belief.
32
What is the SF-36?
A 36-item, patient-reported survey that assesses health-related quality of life across 8 domains (e.g. physical functioning, mental health, pain, vitality).
33
What is Confirmation Bias?
The tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions.
34
What is Anchoring Bias?
Relying too heavily on the first piece of information encountered (the "anchor") when making decisions.
35
What is the Availability Heuristic?
Judging the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind.
36
What is the Bandwagon Effect (bias)?
Believing something is true or correct because many others do.
37
What is the Dunning-Kruger Effect?
A cognitive bias where people with low ability overestimate their competence, while those with high ability may underestimate theirs.
38
How can you mitigate bias in clinical reasoning?
Use checklists or guidelines
Seek second opinions
Practice self-reflection
Engage in peer review or supervision
Remain open to disconfirming evidence
39
What is Reflexivity in research?
The process of critically reflecting on one’s own role, beliefs, and potential biases throughout the research process.
40
What is Triangulation in research?
Using multiple data sources, methods, theories, or investigators to cross-validate findings and reduce bias.
41
What is a Placebo effect?
A positive health outcome resulting from the belief that a treatment will work, even if it has no therapeutic value.
42
What is a Nocebo effect?
A negative effect experienced due to the belief that a harmless treatment will cause harm.
43
What is Black and White Literature?
Published, peer-reviewed academic research in recognized journals.
44
What is Grey Literature?
Unpublished or non-commercially published materials such as reports, theses, government documents, and conference papers.
45
What is Categorical Data?
Data grouped into categories (e.g., gender, blood type).
46
What is Numerical Data?
Data expressed in numbers; can be discrete or continuous.
47
What is Continuous Data?
Data that can take any value within a range (e.g., height, weight, time).
48
What is Random Sampling?
Every individual has an equal chance of being selected.
49
What is Stratified Sampling?
Population divided into subgroups (strata), then randomly sampled from each.
50
What is Cluster Sampling?
Population divided into clusters (e.g., schools), then whole clusters are randomly selected.
51
What is a Box Plot?
A graphical summary showing the median, quartiles, and outliers of a dataset.
52
What is the Null Hypothesis (H₀)?
The default assumption that there is no effect or difference.
53
What is the Alternative Hypothesis (H₁)?
The hypothesis that there is an effect or difference.
54
What is a P-value?
The probability of observing your results (or more extreme) if the null hypothesis is true. A p-value < 0.05 is often considered statistically significant.
55
What is a T-test used for?
To compare means between groups.
56
What is an Independent Samples T-test?
Compares means between two different groups (e.g., treatment vs. control).
57
What is a Paired Samples T-test?
Compares means within the same group before and after an intervention.
58
What is a Chi-square Test?
Assesses the relationship between categorical variables.
59
What is ANOVA (Analysis of Variance)?
Compares means between three or more groups to see if at least one differs significantly.
60
Why is critical thinking important in general?
It improves decision-making, problem-solving, and helps avoid errors or bias.
61
Why is critical thinking important in research?
It ensures evidence is evaluated objectively, reducing bias and improving validity.
62
Why is critical thinking important in real life?
Helps in evaluating media, making informed choices, and navigating misinformation.
63
What should you consider in critical thinking?
Evidence quality, logical consistency, assumptions, context, and bias.
64
How does critical thinking fuel creativity?
It challenges assumptions, explores alternatives, and promotes deeper understanding for innovative solutions.
65
What is a Clarifying Question?
Seeks understanding or explanation (e.g., "What do you mean by...?").
66
What is a Probing Question?
Digs deeper into reasoning or evidence (e.g., "Can you give an example?").
67
What is a Hypothetical Question?
Explores possible outcomes or scenarios (e.g., "What would happen if...?").
68
What is an Evaluative Question?
Assesses quality or value (e.g., "How effective was this solution?").
69
How can you improve your critical thinking?
Ask more questions
Reflect on your reasoning
Seek feedback
Challenge your assumptions
Practice evaluating evidence
Engage in discussions or debates
70
What is a Retrospective Study?
A study that looks backward in time, typically using existing data (e.g., medical records) to investigate past exposures and outcomes.
71
What are the strengths of a retrospective study?
Quick and cost-effective
Useful for rare diseases
Can generate hypotheses
72
What are the weaknesses of a retrospective study?
Prone to recall and selection bias
Incomplete or poor-quality data
Cannot establish causality
73
How can you overcome weaknesses in retrospective studies?
Use reliable, standardized records
Clearly define inclusion/exclusion criteria
Apply statistical controls for confounding
74
What is the application of retrospective studies in research?
Case-control studies
Studying rare diseases or outbreaks
Exploring potential risk factors using existing datasets
75
What is a Prospective Study?
A study that follows participants forward in time from exposure to outcome, tracking data as events unfold.
76
What are the strengths of a prospective study?
Higher data quality
Temporal relationship between cause and effect is clearer
Less prone to recall bias
77
What are the weaknesses of a prospective study?
Time-consuming and expensive
Risk of participant dropout (attrition)
Ethical concerns in some designs
78
How can you overcome weaknesses in prospective studies?
Plan for long-term funding
Maintain participant engagement (e.g., regular follow-ups, incentives)
Use large sample sizes to manage attrition
79
What is the application of prospective studies in research?
Cohort studies
Identifying risk factors for disease
Evaluating the long-term effects of exposures or interventions
80
What is a Longitudinal Study?
A study that repeatedly observes the same participants over a period of time—can be retrospective or prospective.
81
What are the strengths of a longitudinal study?
Tracks changes over time
Can identify cause-effect relationships
Useful for developmental and chronic condition research
82
What are the weaknesses of a longitudinal study?
Expensive and time-consuming
Risk of participant dropout
Data consistency may be difficult over long periods
83
How can you overcome weaknesses in longitudinal studies?
Build strong participant retention strategies
Use consistent data collection protocols
Implement robust data tracking systems
84
What is the application of longitudinal studies in research?
Studying disease progression
Behavioral or developmental research
Measuring long-term effects of exposure or treatment
85
What is a Systematic Review?
A rigorous, structured review that collects and critically analyzes multiple research studies on a specific question using predefined criteria and methodology.
86
What are the strengths of a systematic review?
Reduces bias through structured methods
Provides high-level evidence
Often includes meta-analysis for statistical power
Transparent and reproducible
87
What are the weaknesses of a systematic review?
Time-consuming and resource-intensive
May be limited by available studies' quality
Risk of publication bias (negative studies may be missing)
88
How to overcome weaknesses in systematic reviews?
Follow strict protocols (e.g., PRISMA guidelines)
Search grey literature to reduce publication bias
Use critical appraisal tools for study quality
89
What is the application of systematic reviews in research?
To inform clinical guidelines and policy
To synthesize evidence for EBM
To identify research gaps
90
What is a Narrative Review?
A descriptive, broad overview of a topic or theme, often based on the author’s interpretation and not following a strict method for literature selection.
91
What are the strengths of a narrative review?
Flexible and broad in scope
Quick to produce
Good for theory development or general understanding
92
What are the weaknesses of a narrative review?
High risk of bias (selection and interpretation)
Not reproducible
Lower in the hierarchy of evidence
93
How to overcome weaknesses in narrative reviews?
Be transparent about search and inclusion methods
Use a structured outline or framework
Clearly state the purpose and limitations
94
What is the application of narrative reviews in research?
Early-stage exploration of a topic
Background sections of research papers
Summarizing emerging themes in underdeveloped fields
95
What are the key differences between systematic and narrative reviews?
96
What is a Meta-Analysis?
A statistical technique that combines data from multiple studies (usually RCTs or systematic reviews) to calculate an overall effect size.
97
What are the strengths of meta-analyses?
Increases statistical power
Offers a precise estimate of effect
Can identify patterns or moderators
98
What are the weaknesses of meta-analyses?
Quality depends on the included studies
Risk of publication bias
Heterogeneity (differences between studies) can reduce reliability
99
How to overcome weaknesses in meta-analyses?
Use strict inclusion criteria and quality assessments
Conduct sensitivity and heterogeneity analyses
Search for unpublished/grey literature
100
What is the application of meta-analyses in research?
To provide the strongest available evidence for clinical guidelines
To resolve conflicting findings
To inform health policy decisions
101
What is an Observational Study?
A study where the researcher observes outcomes without manipulating variables or assigning interventions.
102
What are the strengths of observational studies?
Reflect real-world settings and behaviours
Can study exposures that are unethical to assign (e.g., smoking, pollution)
Useful for hypothesis generation
Often less expensive and more feasible than experimental studies
Some types (like cohort studies) can establish temporal relationships
103
What are the weaknesses of observational studies?
Cannot definitively prove causation
Prone to bias (e.g., recall bias, selection bias)
Vulnerable to confounding variables
Data may be incomplete or poorly controlled
Risk of reverse causality in cross-sectional designs
104
How can you overcome weaknesses in observational studies?
Use matching, stratification, or statistical adjustments (e.g., regression) to control confounders
Use validated and standardized measurement tools
Apply blinding where possible (e.g., data analysis)
Predefine inclusion/exclusion criteria
Combine with triangulation or use multiple methods to confirm results
105
What is the application of observational studies in research?
Identifying risk factors and associations between exposures and outcomes
Useful in epidemiology, public health, and social sciences
Supporting hypothesis generation before experimental trials
Evaluating long-term or natural progression of diseases
Used in cases where RCTs are unethical, impractical, or too expensive
106
What is a Cohort Study?
A study that follows a group (cohort) over time to observe how exposures affect outcomes.
107
One strength of cohort studies?
Can assess risk and establish a time sequence between exposure and outcome.
108
One weakness of cohort studies?
Can be expensive and time-consuming.
109
What is a Case-Control Study?
A study that compares individuals with a condition (cases) to those without (controls) to identify past exposures.
110
One strength of case-control studies?
Good for rare diseases or outcomes.
111
One weakness of case-control studies?
Prone to recall and selection bias.
112
What is a Cross-Sectional Study?
A study that examines exposure and outcome at a single point in time.
113
One strength of cross-sectional studies?
Quick and cost-effective.
114
One weakness of cross-sectional studies?
Cannot establish causality or temporal relationships.
115
What is an RCT?
A study where participants are randomly assigned to either an intervention or control group to assess the effect of an intervention under controlled conditions.
116
What are the strengths of RCTs?
Gold standard for determining causality
Randomization reduces bias and confounding
Highly controlled environment increases internal validity
117
What are the weaknesses of RCTs?
Expensive and time-consuming
May lack external (real-world) validity
Ethical concerns with random allocation
Strict protocols may not reflect real clinical practice
118
How to overcome weaknesses in RCTs?
Use pragmatic trials to improve generalizability
Conduct pilot studies first to manage cost
Use intention-to-treat analysis to handle dropouts
Ensure ethical transparency and informed consent
119
What is the application of RCTs in research?
Evaluating medical treatments, therapies, and health interventions
Forming the basis for clinical guidelines and policy
Establishing efficacy under ideal conditions
120
What is a single-blind study?
Only the participant is unaware of which group (intervention or control) they are in.
121
Why use it?
Reduces placebo effects and participant bias.
122
What is a double-blind study?
Both participants and researchers (e.g., those administering treatment) are unaware of group allocation.
123
Why use it?
Prevents participant and researcher bias, increasing reliability.
124
What is a triple-blind study?
Participants, researchers, and data analysts are blinded to group assignments.
125
Why use it?
Prevents bias in data interpretation, offering the highest objectivity.
126
What are interviews in research?
A qualitative data collection method involving direct, in-depth questioning of participants to explore their experiences, perceptions, or opinions.
127
Strengths of interviews?
Rich, detailed insights
Flexibility to explore emerging themes
Builds rapport and understanding
128
Weaknesses of interviews?
Time-consuming to conduct and analyze
Subject to interviewer bias
Difficult to generalize results
129
Interviews application in research?
Exploring patient experiences
Gathering data for phenomenological and grounded theory research
Informing intervention design
130
What is a Non-Randomized Controlled Trial?
study where participants are allocated to intervention or control groups without randomization.
131
Non-Randomized Controlled Trial Strengths?
Easier to implement in real-world settings
Ethical when randomization is not possible
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Non-Randomized Controlled Trial Weaknesses?
Greater risk of bias and confounding
Lower internal validity compared to RCTs
133
Non-Randomized Controlled Trial How to reduce weaknesses?
Use matching, statistical adjustments, or quasi-experimental designs
134
Non-Randomized Controlled Trial Applications?
Public health interventions
Educational or behavioral research where randomization is difficult
135
What is a Pragmatic Clinical Trial?
A type of RCT designed to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention in real-world, routine clinical practice, rather than ideal conditions.
136
Pragmatic Clinical Trial Strengths?
High external validity
More applicable to general patient populations
Supports real-world clinical decision-making
137
Pragmatic Clinical Trial Weaknesses?
Less internal control (e.g., variability in practice)
Can be complex to design and implement
138
Pragmatic Clinical Trial How to improve quality?
139
Pragmatic Clinical Trial Applications?
Health services research
Policy-making and clinical practice improvement
Assessing scalability of interventions
140
What is a Delphi Study?
A research method that uses multiple rounds of anonymous surveys to collect and refine expert opinions on a topic, with the goal of reaching consensus.
Participants: Experts in the field
Process: Iterative (often 2–4 rounds) with feedback after each round
Anonymity: Prevents dominance and group pressure
141
What are the strengths of Delphi studies?
Gathers expert consensus without groupthink
Anonymous responses reduce social bias
Flexible and inexpensive compared to in-person panels
Can be conducted remotely, allowing diverse expert input
142
What are the weaknesses of Delphi studies?
Time-consuming across multiple rounds
Dropout risk between rounds
Quality depends on the selection of experts
Subjective interpretation of consensus
Lack of standardisation in how consensus is defined
143
How can you overcome weaknesses in Delphi studies?
Predefine clear criteria for “consensus”
Choose experts carefully based on credentials/experience
Keep rounds concise and relevant to reduce attrition
Use software tools to manage and analyze feedback efficiently
144
What is the application of Delphi studies in research?
Guideline or policy development
Curriculum design and accreditation standards
Forecasting trends in healthcare, education, and tech
Identifying research priorities or competencies in emerging fields
145
What are Clinical Practice Guidelines?
Systematically developed statements that assist practitioner and patient decisions about appropriate health care for specific clinical circumstances.
146
Strengths of CPGs?
Promote evidence-based care
Improve consistency and quality of care
Inform policy and funding decisions
Help with clinical decision-making
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148
How to overcome weaknesses?
Regularly update guidelines with the latest evidence
Use independent review panels
Consider context and allow for clinician discretion
149
Applications in research?
Used to design interventions
As benchmarks for evaluating care quality
To identify gaps in current evidence
150
What is a Feasibility Study?
A preliminary study done to assess whether a full-scale research project or intervention is practical, viable, and worth pursuing.
151
Strengths of feasibility studies?
Identifies problems before a large trial begins
Helps refine protocols and logistics
Saves time and resources in the long run
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How to overcome weaknesses of feasibility studies?
Clearly define what will be assessed (e.g. recruitment, retention, resources)
Use mixed methods to capture full context
Be transparent that it is preparatory, not confirmatory research
154
Application in research of feasibility studies?
Piloting tools, interventions, or study designs
Evaluating recruitment strategies, timelines, and budgets
Informing grant and ethics applications
155
What is a Survey in research?
A structured data collection method used to gather self-reported information from individuals about opinions, behaviors, or demographics, usually via questionnaires or interviews.
156
Strengths of surveys?
Cost-effective and efficient for large populations
Standardized data collection
Useful for both qualitative and quantitative data
157
Weaknesses of surveys?
Risk of low response rates
Answers may be biased or inaccurate
Limited depth compared to qualitative interviews
158
How to improve survey research?
Use validated questions
Pilot test the survey instrument
Follow up to improve response rates
Assure anonymity and confidentiality
159
Applications in research?
Assessing public opinion, knowledge, or satisfaction
Health surveillance
Needs assessments and program evaluations
160
What are the main types of surveys?
161
