exam3 Flashcards
(162 cards)
1
Q
sponges are the only animals without
A
neurons
2
Q
the simplest nervous system is the ____ ____ in _____
A
nerve net, cnidarians
3
Q
radially symmetric animals have a
A
nerve ring
4
Q
bilaterally symmetric animals have a true
A
central nervous system
5
Q
what kind of animals have a chain of segmental ganglia
A
segmented
6
Q
what is the expensive-tissue hypothesis
A
costly to have a larger brain so, herbivores have small brains with low-quality diets requiring a larger digestive tract and vice versa fro carnivores
7
Q
what is the maternal energy hypothesis
A
brain size depends on the allocation of maternal resources to fetal and postnatal development
8
Q
the peripheral nervous system contains nerve fibers that extend to other parts of the body, what are these called?
A
afferent and efferent division
9
Q
what does afferent division do
A
sensory, carries information sensors to CNS
10
Q
what does efferent division do
A
transmits instructions from CNS to effector organ
11
Q
what does afferent division contain in terms of nerves
A
sensory receptor, peripheral axon, cell body, central axon
12
Q
what does efferent division contain in terms of nerves
A
dendrites, cell body, axon, and interneurons
13
Q
what are the 2 types of efferent division
A
somatic and autonomic nervous system
14
Q
what are the 2 divisions of the autonomic nervous system
A
sympathetic- fight or flight
parasympathetic- relaxation
15
Q
most visceral organs are innervated by both what
A
sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
16
Q
the parasympathetic nerve fibers arise from what region of spinal cord
A
cranial and sacral
17
Q
the sympathetic nerve fibers originate in what regions of spinal cord
A
thoracic, lumbar
18
Q
the autonomic pathway consists of a
A
2- neuron chain
19
Q
preganglionic fibers extend from CNS to
A
autonomic ganglion
20
Q
postganglionic fibers innervate
A
effector organ
21
Q
where can you find sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia in the body? what are their specific regions?
A
sympathetic- form a chain alongside the spinal cord
parasympathetic- lie in or near effector organs
22
Q
sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglionic fibers release what
A
acetylcholine (Ach)
23
Q
parasympathetic postganglionic fibers release what
A
Ach (cholinergic fibers)
24
Q
what fibers release norepinephrine (adrenergic fibers)
A
sympathetic postganglionic
25
since the adrenal medulla is a modified sympathetic ganglion, what does it release
epinephrine and norepinephrine into the blood
26
what are the different receptor types for each autonomic neurotransmitter
cholinergic nicotinic receptors
cholinergic muscarinic receptors
and adrenergic receptors
-cholinergic (acts upon ach)
27
where can you find cholinergic nicotinic receptors
on postganglionic cell bodies in all autonomic ganglia
28
where can you find cholinergic muscarinic receptors
on effector cells of parasympathetic system
29
where can you find adrenergic receptors (GCPR)
on effector cells of sympathetic system
30
what does a1 and a2 bind to and what is their response
a1-norepinephrine, excitatory
a2-norepinephrine, inhibitory
31
what does b1 and b2 bind to and what is their response
b1- NE and E, excitatory
b2- epinephrine, inhibitory
32
what do the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system differ in structure
post ganglionic fibers
33
what receptor types does sympathetic have
adrenergic a and b types
34
what receptor types does parasympathetic have
cholinergic muscarinic receptors
35
difference between epinephrine and norepinephrine
NE- continuously released
E- during stress
36
skeletal muscle is innervated by
motor neurons
37
cell bodies are found where
in ventral horn of spinal cord or brainstem
38
axons terminate on
skeletal muscle
39
axon terminals release
acetylcholine
40
glial cells serve as what kind of tissue of the CNS
connective
41
what do glial cells not do
initiate or conduct nerve impulses
42
each region of body surface supplied by a particular spinal nerve is called
dermatome
43
what does gray matter contain
cell bodies and their dendrites
- dorsal horn
-interneurons
-ventral horn
-lateral horn
44
what is white matter
bundles of myelinated nerve fibers
-ascending and descending
45
what are the 2 types of spinal nerves and the difference between them
afferent- entering through dorsal root and efferent- leaving spinal cord through ventral root
46
withdrawal of a limb from a painful stimulus is what
reflex arc
47
what is the cerebrum and its main function
bulk of brain- 2 hemispheres
conscious thought and memory
48
what does the cerebellum do
coordinates complex motor patterns
-balance and coordination
49
what does the diencephalon do
relays sensory information to the cerebellum and controls homeostasis
50
each hemisphere contains what
4 lobes
51
how are the 2 hemispheres connected
corpus callosum- band of axons
52
what do each of the lobes do
occipital- vision
temporal-hearing
parietal-body sensory (contains somatosensory
frontal-motor activity, speech, memory
53
difference between habituation and sensitization
habituation- decreased responsiveness to repetitive presentation
sensitization- increased responsiveness to mild stimuli following a strong stimulus
54
what are the brain regions implicated in memory storage
hippocampus and cerebellum
55
where is the hippocampus
limbic system in temporal lobe
56
how does cerebellum aid in memory storage
procedural memories involving motor skills
57
spinal nerves, afferent and efferent, control what type of movement
voluntary-- part of somatic nervous system
58
peripheral nervous system nerves, afferent and efferent, control what type of movement
involuntary
59
skeletal muscle contracts to couteract a stretch stimulus is called what
stretch reflex
60
extension of the opposite limb during the withdrawal reflex is called what
crossed extensor reflex
61
where is the diencephalon and what does it do
sits on top of brainstem, information relay; control of homeostasis
62
what does the brain stem do
information relay, autonomic control of heart, lungs, digestive system
63
what are the 3 parts of the brain stem
midbrain, pons, medulla
64
the basal nuclei are lateral to the thalamus, surrounding corpus colossum, so what does it do
coordination of slow sustained movement
65
what does the thalamus do
relay station for all synaptic input, role in motor control
66
what controls levels of cortical alertness via the reticular activating system
brain stem
67
what does the hypothalamus do
integrating center for homeostatic functions
68
what are the parts of limbic system
cingulate gyrus, fornix, thalamus, hippocampus, temporal, hypothalamus, amygdala, olfactory bulb
69
what is the cerebral cortex
outer shell of gray matter
70
what is the left cerebral hemisphere known for
speech, fine motor control, and logical tasks
71
what is the right cerebral hemisphere known for
non-language skills
artistic "creators"
72
_____ is the acquisition of abilities or knowledge as a result of _____ or instruction
learning, experience
73
_____ is the storage of acquired ____ for later recall
memory, knowledge
74
declarative or explicit memory
learning of facts, events, places
75
procedural or implicit memory
learning of skilled motor movements
76
imprinting
programmed behaviors based on experiences encountered early in life
77
working memory versus consolidation
consoldiation- transferring short term memory to long term
working- comparing current sensory data with relevant stored knowledge and manipulating that info
78
the ability to sense change in the environment depends on what 2 processes
transduction and transmission
79
what is transduction
conversion of the energy of a stimulus into electrical energy
linked to opening and closing of gated ion channels
80
what is transmission
transmission of signal to cns
81
what does transduction require to convert the light sound or touch to an electrical signal
sensory receptor
82
sensors are characterized by specific _____ to which they respond
modalities
ex: mechanoreceptors- mechanical energy
nocireceptors- respond to tissue damage
83
what are the sensory transduction mechanisms
ionotropic and metabotropic
84
what is ionotropic transduction
stimulus-gated ion channels open directly in response to an applied stimulus
85
what is metabotropic transduction
stimulus activates a gcpr triggering metabolic cascade that results in activation of sensory cells
86
what do interoreceptors do
detect information about internal body fluids crucial to homeostasis
87
what kind of receptor monitors body movement and position
proprioceptors
- in muscles tendons and joints
88
extereoreceptors detect what
external stimuli
89
what is an animals interpretation of external world
perception
90
what is it called when each type of receptor is specialized to respond to one type of stimulus
adequate
ex- adequate stimulus for photoreceptors in eye is light
91
pathways conveying sensory information follow
labeled lines
92
what is the labeled lines principle
sensory signals carried by PNS to either spinal cord or medulla
secondary neuron synapses in thalamus
signal relayed to appropriate sensory cortex
brain decodes type of stimulus
93
receptor potential is ___
graded, the greater the stimulus the larger the receptor potential
94
tonic receptors versus phasic
tonic- do not adapt at all or adapt slowly
phasic- adapt rapidly
95
sound travels as ___ through a medium and is detected by ______
waves, mechanoreceptors
96
lateral lines can detect
very low frequency sounds
97
bending of cilia produce an ____ _____ in the sensory neurons to brain
action potential
98
in the external ear vertebrates typically have 2 ears allowing for
localization of sound
99
tympanic membrane vibrates as ___ hits
sound
100
amphibians and reptiles have only a
tympanic membrane
101
mammalian external ear consists of
pinna, external auditory meatus, and tympanic membrane
102
intensity or loudness depends on ____ of sound waves
amplitude
103
pitch or tone depends on ____ of sound waves
frequency
104
ultrasound(______ frequencies) is useful in ____ by bats, dolphins, and toothed whales
higher, echolocation
105
infrasound (______ frequency) is used by whales and elephants to communicate over great distances
lower
106
timbre or quality depends on
overtones
107
the middle ear transfers vibration of the ____ membrane to the ____ ear
tympanic, inner
108
in the middle ear, there is a moveable chain of three small bones otherwise called
ossicles
109
what did the 3 little bones in the middle ear evolve from and what are they
jaw structures
- malleus
-incus
-stapes
110
organ of corti the sense organ for
hearing
111
cochlea is a coiled tubular system with _____ fluid filled longitudinal compartments
3
112
what are the 3 fluid filled longitudinal compartments
scala vestibuli
scala media
scala tympani
113
what is the doppler shift
when the object is moving towards the sound so it sounds louder
114
constant frequency versus frequency-modulated bats
constant frequency- doppler shift compensation- constant over long distances
frequency-modulated: detect things in short range
115
how do owls hear differently than humans
their ears are not level- the left ear is higher.
based on time (horizontal) and frequency(vertical)
116
olfactory efferent neurons are the only mammalian neurons that undergo
cell division
117
each receptor involved in olfaction responds to only ____ discrete component of an ____
one, odor
118
what does an oderant bind to
g-protein coupled receptor
119
in mammals what organ is located at the base of the naval cavity and is connected to mouth via nasopalatine duct
vomeronasal organ
120
what does the vomeronasal organ do
flehemen response
-draws in air from environment to directly sense it
-pheromones
121
what are the 5 major steps of gas exchange
ventilation, diffusion at respiratory, circulation, diffusion at tissues, and cellular respiration
122
ventilation and diffusion at the respiratory surface are accomplished by what system
respiratory
123
what is the circulatory system responsible for
moving o2 nd co2 and other materials around body
124
oxygen tends to move ___ tissues and carbon dioxide tends to move from ____ to environment
into, tissues
125
partial pressure is the pressure of a particular ___ in a mixture of ___
gas, gases
126
how to calculate partial pressure
mmHg x 0.21
127
during the reflex arc you do not have to think about removing the stimulus, why?
bypasses the brain
128
what do glomeruli do versus mitral cells
glomeruli- smell files- destination
mitral- send signal to brain
129
what affects the amount of gas in a solution
-solubility of gas in water
-temp of water
-presence of other solutes
-partial pressure of gas in contact with water
130
why is it possible for small animals to exchange gases by direct diffusion
high surface area to volume ratio
-moist
131
respiratory organs provide a greater
surface area for gas exchange
132
gills present an extremely large
surface area for oxygen to diffuse across extremely thin epithelium
133
how do most fishes ventilate their gills
opening and closing operculum
134
what does opening and closing mouths/ operculum do
create a pressure gradient that moves water over the gills
135
fast swimmers force water through their gills by swimming with their mouths open through a process called
ram ventilation
136
what does ram ventilation do essentially
filter water through to get oxygen out of water
137
the flow of blood through the capillaries is in the opposite direction to the flow of water over the surface is what
countercurrent system
138
2 advantages of countercurrent system
large difference in oxygen partial pressure exists between start and end- graded almost
slight gradient in partial pressure of oxygen between blood and water
139
facultative ram breathers
switch from buccal-opercular breathing to ram when above certain velocities
140
insects have air filled tubes called
tracheae
141
in insects, air moves from atmosphere into _____ and into tracheae, which transports air to the ____ and diffuses cells from there
spiracles, tissues
142
if the volume occupied by a fixed amount of gas increases, the gas pressure decreases is what
boyles law
143
the trachea in vertebrates carries inhaled air to narrow tubes called
bronchi
144
the organ of ventilation in vertebrates is the
lung
145
in vertebrates what greatly increases the surface area for gas exchange
alveoli , tiny sacs
146
what are the 2 mechanisms for pumping air
-positive pressure ventilation and negative pressure ventilation
147
total lung capacity
maximum amount of air that the lungs can hold
148
tidal volume is the volume of what
air entering or leaving lungs during a single breath
149
residual volume
minimum volume of air remaining in lungs after maximum respiration
150
vital capacity
maximum volume of air that can be moved out during a single breath following maximal inspiration
151
pulmonary respiration is how many breaths you take per minute so how do you calculate
tidal volume x respiratory rate
152
what increases with body size, while respiratory rate decreases
tidal volume
153
what is the oxygen carrying molecule in red blood cells
hemeglobin
154
hemoglobin consists of 4 polypeptide chains, each of which binds to a non protein group called a
heme
155
The blood leaving the lungs has a greater __ ____ than that of muscles and other tissues
partial pressure
156
why is the cooperative binding curve sigmodal
due to binding of each successive oxygen molecule to a subunit
157
in short cooperative binding is a small change to partial pressure leads to
a large change in how much o2 unloads from hemoglobin (saturation)
158
Decreases in pH alter hemoglobins curve how
right shift
159
what is the bohr shift
makes hemoglobin more likely to release oxygen during exercise
-partial pressure high, pH low
-decreased affinity for O2
160
bohr haldane effect
left shift to hemoglobin curve
-high pH, low temp, decreases affinity for CO2
161
fetal hemoglobin versus mother hemoglobin
fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen than adult
162
role of carbonic anhydrase and hemoglobin
protons induce bohr shift- more likely to release oxygen
strong partial pressure gradient- favoring entry of CO2
