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Question 1

What is Levothyroxine (T4)?

Answer 1

Synthetic form of thyroid hormone; converted to T3 in the body.

Question 2

What are the actions of Levothyroxine (T4)?

Answer 2

Increases metabolism, regulates growth, and energy production.

Question 3

What are common side effects of Levothyroxine (T4)?

Answer 3

Hyperthyroid symptoms (tachycardia, insomnia, weight loss); cardiac events (arrhythmias at high doses).

Question 4

What are Glucocorticoids?

Answer 4

Prednisone, Hydrocortisone: Mimic cortisol action.

Question 5

What are the actions of Glucocorticoids?

Answer 5

Reduce inflammation, suppress the immune response, increase glucose production.

Question 6

What are common side effects of Glucocorticoids?

Answer 6

Osteoporosis, weight gain, moon face, high BP, hyperglycemia, infection risk; long-term use: adrenal suppression.

Question 7

What is Fludrocortisone?

Answer 7

Mimics aldosterone; regulates sodium and potassium balance.

Question 8

What are the actions of Fludrocortisone?

Answer 8

Controls blood volume, pressure, and electrolyte balance.

Question 9

What are common side effects of Fludrocortisone?

Answer 9

Hypertension, edema, hypokalemia, alkalosis.

Question 10

What is Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT)?

Answer 10

Estrogen & Progesterone: Treat menopausal symptoms (hot flashes, vaginal dryness).

Question 11

What are the actions of Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT)?

Answer 11

Protects bone density, alleviates symptoms.

Question 12

What are common side effects of Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT)?

Answer 12

Breast tenderness, nausea, headaches, VTE, breast cancer risk (long-term use).

Question 13

What is the treatment for Hypothyroidism?

Answer 13

Levothyroxine (T4): Replaces thyroid hormone.

Question 14

What is the impact of treating Hypothyroidism?

Answer 14

Corrects metabolic imbalance, alleviates symptoms like fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance.

Question 15

What is the treatment for Hyperthyroidism?

Answer 15

Methimazole, Propylthiouracil: Inhibit thyroid hormone production; radioactive iodine: Ablates thyroid tissue.

Question 16

What is the impact of treating Hyperthyroidism?

Answer 16

Reduces thyroid hormone levels, normalizes metabolism.

Question 17

What is the treatment for Adrenal Insufficiency (Addison’s Disease)?

Answer 17

Hydrocortisone (glucocorticoid) and Fludrocortisone (mineralocorticoid).

Question 18

What is the impact of treating Adrenal Insufficiency?

Answer 18

Restores cortisol and aldosterone, reduces symptoms like fatigue, weight loss, hypotension.

Question 19

What is the treatment for Cushing’s Syndrome?

Answer 19

Ketoconazole, Mitotane: Suppress cortisol production; surgical removal of tumors if necessary.

Question 20

What is the impact of treating Cushing’s Syndrome?

Answer 20

Reduces excess cortisol, normalizes metabolism, and alleviates symptoms like weight gain, hyperglycemia, osteoporosis.

Question 21

What is the treatment for Osteoporosis?

Answer 21

Bisphosphonates (e.g., alendronate), SERMs, calcitonin, Denosumab.

Question 22

What is the impact of treating Osteoporosis?

Answer 22

Prevents bone resorption, increases bone density, reduces fracture risk.

Question 23

What is the mechanism of Insulin?

Answer 23

Facilitates glucose uptake by cells.

Question 24

What are the actions of Insulin?

Answer 24

Lowers blood glucose and regulates fat/protein metabolism.

Question 25

What are common side effects of Insulin?

Answer 25

Hypoglycemia, weight gain, injection site reactions.

Question 26

What is Metformin (Biguanide)?

Answer 26

Reduces hepatic glucose production and increases insulin sensitivity.

Question 27

What are common side effects of Metformin?

Answer 27

Gastrointestinal issues (nausea, diarrhea), lactic acidosis (rare), B12 deficiency.

Question 28

What are Sulfonylureas?

Answer 28

Stimulate insulin secretion from pancreatic beta cells.

Question 29

What are common side effects of Sulfonylureas?

Answer 29

Hypoglycemia, weight gain, rash.

Question 30

What are DPP-4 Inhibitors?

Answer 30

Inhibit DPP-4 enzyme, enhancing incretin effect (increases insulin and reduces glucagon secretion).

Question 31

What are common side effects of DPP-4 Inhibitors?

Answer 31

Upper respiratory infections, headaches, gastrointestinal discomfort.

Question 32

What are GLP-1 Receptor Agonists?

Answer 32

Mimic GLP-1, enhancing insulin secretion and reducing glucagon release.

Question 33

What are common side effects of GLP-1 Receptor Agonists?

Answer 33

Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, pancreatitis (rare).

Question 34

What are SGLT2 Inhibitors?

Answer 34

Inhibit SGLT2, preventing glucose reabsorption and promoting excretion in urine.

Question 35

What are common side effects of SGLT2 Inhibitors?

Answer 35

UTIs, genital infections, dehydration, hypotension, ketoacidosis (rare).

Question 36

What is the management for Type 1 Diabetes?

Answer 36

Insulin therapy: Basal-bolus regimens (long-acting insulin for basal coverage, rapid-acting insulin for meals).

Question 37

What is the goal for managing Type 1 Diabetes?

Answer 37

Tight glycemic control.

Question 38

What is the management for Type 2 Diabetes?

Answer 38

Metformin first-line; add-on therapy: Sulfonylureas, DPP-4 inhibitors, GLP-1 agonists, and SGLT2 inhibitors.

Question 39

What is the goal for managing Type 2 Diabetes?

Answer 39

Improve insulin sensitivity, control blood glucose, prevent long-term complications.

Question 40

What are the adverse effects of diabetic medications?

Answer 40

Insulin & Sulfonylureas: Hypoglycemia, weight gain; Metformin: Lactic acidosis (rare), GI issues; GLP-1 Agonists: Nausea, vomiting; SGLT2 Inhibitors: UTIs, ketoacidosis (rare).

Question 41

What drug interactions can affect diabetes management?

Answer 41

Corticosteroids, Beta-blockers, Thiazide diuretics: Can increase blood glucose levels; Alcohol: May increase hypoglycemia risk with insulin.

Question 42

What is the role of the hypothalamus in regulating pituitary hormone secretion?

Answer 42

The hypothalamus releases releasing hormones (e.g., TRH, CRH, GnRH, GHRH) and inhibiting hormones (e.g., somatostatin, dopamine) to control the secretion of pituitary hormones.

Question 43

What is an example of the hypothalamus's role in hormone regulation?

Answer 43

TRH stimulates the release of TSH from the pituitary, which in turn regulates thyroid function.

Question 44

What are the mechanisms and causes of endocrine hypofunction and hyperfunction?

Answer 44

Hypofunction: Due to gland destruction, autoimmune conditions, or insufficient stimulation from the hypothalamus/pituitary (e.g., Addison’s disease, hypothyroidism); Hyperfunction: Caused by tumors, hyperplasia, or genetic mutations that increase hormone production (e.g., Cushing’s syndrome, Graves’ disease).

Question 45

What are the types of pituitary tumors and their effects on endocrine function?

Answer 45

Adenomas: Most common pituitary tumors, can be functioning (secreting hormones) or non-functioning (no hormone secretion); Prolactinomas: Overproduction of prolactin, leading to galactorrhea and hypogonadism; Corticotroph adenomas: Overproduction of ACTH, leading to Cushing’s syndrome.

Question 46

What are the clinical features, causes, and consequences of hypopituitarism?

Answer 46

Clinical Features: Fatigue, weight loss, cold intolerance, decreased libido, infertility, adrenal insufficiency, and growth retardation; Causes: Tumors, trauma, infections, autoimmune diseases, or genetic defects; Consequences: Impaired function of target glands (thyroid, adrenal, gonads), and growth failure in children.

Question 47

What are the manifestations of growth hormone deficiency and excess in children and adults?

Answer 47

Deficiency in Children: Short stature, delayed puberty, and growth retardation; Excess in Children: Gigantism (abnormal growth of long bones); Deficiency in Adults: Reduced muscle mass, increased fatigue, and low bone density; Excess in Adults: Acromegaly (enlargement of hands, feet, and facial features).

Question 48

What hormones are produced by the adrenal cortex?

Answer 48

Cortisol, aldosterone, and androgens.

Question 49

How is feedback regulation managed for adrenal hormones?

Answer 49

Cortisol is regulated by ACTH from the pituitary, which is controlled by the hypothalamus through CRH; Aldosterone secretion is influenced by angiotensin II, K+ levels, and ACTH.

Question 50

What are the stages of adrenal cortical insufficiency and their clinical significance?

Answer 50

Primary Adrenal Insufficiency (Addison’s disease): Deficiency in cortisol and aldosterone; caused by autoimmune destruction of adrenal glands; Secondary Adrenal Insufficiency: Due to pituitary failure (low ACTH levels); Acute Adrenal Crisis: Severe cortisol deficiency, characterized by hypotension.