Families and Households Topic 2 - changing family patterns

Question 1

Divorce (two stats)

Answer 1

A major cause of changing family types, 42% of marriages end in divorce. Since the 1960s there has been a huge increase in the number of divorces.

• 63% of petitions for divorce come from women compared to only 37% in 1946.

Question 2

How changes in the law led to an increase in divorce:

Answer 2

1923 - Equalising the grounds of divorce, sharp rise in divorce petitions from women

1949 - Making divorce cheaper, legal aid for divorce cases lowered the cost of divorce and made it more accessible for the working class

1971 - Widening the grounds for divorce, rates doubled overnight

(Other solutions to unhappy marriages: desertion, one person leaves the other but they remain married. Legal separation, court separates financial and legal affairs but remain married, ‘empty shell marriage’, couple live under the same roof but remain married in only name)

Question 3

How the decline in stigma and changing attitudes led to an increase in divorce (two theorists):

Answer 3

In the past divorce was very much stigmatised, e.g. churches tended to condemn divorce and often refused it.
- Mitchell & Goody (1997): argue since the 1960s there has been a decrease in stigma
- As divorce becomes more accepted in society, couples are more likely to turn to it as a way to resolve their issues
- Divorce has become more ‘normalised’ instead of being shameful

Question 4

How secularisation has led to an increase in divorce:

Answer 4

Refers to the decline of the influence religion has on society. Many sociologists argue that religion is losing its influence and society is becoming more secular.
- As a result, the church which was the main opponent of divorce has much less influence and weight on society
- Churches have softened their views on divorce, due to the fact that they were losing credibility with the public

Question 5

How rising expectations of love have led to an increase in divorce (three theorists):

Answer 5

Fletcher (1966) functionalist suggests that the high expectations people place on marriage is the major cause of the increase in divorce rates.
- The ‘ideology of romantic love’, the belief that marriage should solely be based on love, if the love dies there is no need to remain married
- Many people in the past married for a sense of duty
- Allan & Crow (2001) argue people no longer see marriage as a binding contract but a relationship in which individuals seek personal fulfilment

Question 6

How changing positions of women led to an increase in divorce:

Answer 6

Women’s economic position has improved which means they no longer have to rely on men, freer to choose divorce if their marriage is unsatisfactory:
- Women are in paid work, 53% in 1971, rising to 73% in 2021
- Equal pay and anti discrimination laws
- Girls achieve greater success in education, better paid jobs
- Welfare benefits, no longer financially dependent

Question 7

Feminist explanation for the increase in divorce (three theorists):

Answer 7

Women today suffer a dual burden of paid work and domestic labour, which creates a new conflict between husbands and wives - higher divorce rates.

• Hochschild (1997), home life for women is unfavourable compared to the working life where they’re treated more equally. Men and woman also working longer hours so less time to sit down and discuss house life
• Rushton (ESRC, 2007), notes that women who have a dual burden are more likely to divorce than non working women
• Bernard (1976), a radical feminist argues that the increase in divorce rate is a reaction to the growing acceptance of feminist ideas, acknowledgement of the oppressive patriarchal marriage which women are now more likely to reject

Question 8

How modernity and individualisation led to an increase in divorce (two theorists):

Answer 8

Beck (1992) and Giddens (1992) argue that modern societies traditional norms such as staying with one partner lose their influence. We are less interested in doing what society expects and more interested in pursuing our own self interests.
- This leads to relationships becoming more fragile because individuals seek ‘pure relationships’ which purely exists to satisfy each person’s needs

Question 9

The New Right view on divorce

Answer 9

See high divorce rates as undesirable because it undermines marriage and the traditional nuclear family which they see as ideal.
In their view, high divorce rates creates an underclass of welfare dependent parents who are a burden to the state and produce deviant boys

Question 10

Feminists view on divorce

Answer 10

Welcome the high divorce rate as in their eyes it is showing that women are breaking free from the patriarchal oppression of the nuclear family

Question 11

Postmodernists and Individualisation Thesis view on divorce

Answer 11

See high divorce rates as showing individuals now have more freedom to end a relationship that no longer meets their needs. They see divorce as a major source of greater family diversity

Question 12

Functionalists view on divorce

Answer 12

Argue that high divorce rate is not a threat to the institute of marriage as the high rate of re-marriage shows us that people are still committed to the idea of marriage. Instead it shows us that people simply have a higher expectation of marriage today.

Question 13

Interactionists views of divorce (two theorists)

Answer 13

Aim to look at what divorce means to the individuals. Morgan argues we cannot generalise about the meaning of divorce as it is different for everyone

Mitchell & Goody - they interviewed one person who said that the day her dad left was the best day of her life, whereas another said she has never recovered from her dad leaving

Question 14

The Personal Life Perspective view on divorce (one theorist)

Answer 14

Says that divorce can cause problems like financial difficulty and lack of contact with children. However Smart (2011) argues divorce has become normalised and it doesn’t mean that family life is disintegrating instead it is adapting. Divorce should be seen as a transition in the life course

Question 15

Marriage (three stats)

Answer 15

UK marriage rates are at the lowest since 1920’s:
- Fewer people are marrying, there was a huge decrease in 2020 due to COVID
- More re marriages, in 2019 14.7% of all marriages were re-marriages
- People are marrying later, the average age for women is 32, 34 for men which has risen since 1971
- Couples today are much less likely to marry in church

Question 16

Changing attitudes to marriage

Answer 16

There is now less pressure to marry and more freedom for individuals to choose a relationship they want.

Question 17

How secularisation has affected marriage:

Answer 17

As church influence decreases, people feel less pressure to marry
- The 2001 Census found young people with no religion were less likely to marry compared to young people with a religion
- Also explains why fewer people marry in church/ see the relevance of a religious ceremony

Question 18

How the decline in stigma has affected marriage:

Answer 18

Remaining single, having sex before marriage, having children outside of marriage and cohabitation are now more widely accepted

• 4B movement in Korea, women refusing to marry and have children to lower the population

Question 19

How the changing positions of women has affected marriage:

Answer 19

Women now have greater financial independence, they are less reliant on men and therefore have greater freedom to not marry. The Feminist idea that marriage is patriarchal and oppressive may also be dissuading women from marrying

Question 20

How fear of divorce has affected marriage:

Answer 20

As the divorce rate rises some people may be put off from marrying

Question 21

Cohabitation (three stats)

Answer 21

Involves an unmarried couple in a sexual relationship living together, whilst the number of marriages has declined the number of cohab couples has increased.

There are now about 3.6 million cohab heterosexual couples in the UK as of 2021, which has risen by 144% compared to 1996. Estimated 69,000 same sex cohab couples.

Question 22

Reasons for the increase in cohabitation (4)

Answer 22

• Decline in stigma attached to sex before marriage
• Young people are now more accepting of cohabitation
• Increased career opportunities for women
• Secularisation, young people with no religion are more likely to cohab that young people with religion

Question 23

The relationship between marriage and cohabitation (three theorists)

Answer 23

Whilst marriage decreases and cohab increases the relationship between the two is not clear. Quite often cohab is seen as a trial marriage, most cohab couples marry if they have children

• Chester argues for most people cohabitation is part of the process to getting married
• Coast (2006) found 75% of cohabiting couples say they expect to marry each other
• Bejin (1993) argues cohab is a conscious attempt to create a more equal relationship

Question 24

Same-sex relationships (one theorist, 3 stats)

Answer 24

Stonewall (2022) reports that only 71% of Gen Z identify as straight, compared to 91% of Baby Boomers. The older generation faced more stigma and even criminal charges.
- 7% of the UK are in same sex relationships
- Male homosexuality was decriminalised in 1967 for consenting adults over 21
- 2002 Right to Adopt
- 2004 Civil Partnership Act gave same-sex couples similar legal rights to married couples
- Since 2014 same sex couples have been able to marry

Question 25

Chosen families (four theorists)

Answer 25

- Weeks (1999) argues same sex relationships are starting to resemble heterosexual relationships, based on 'friendships as kinship' where friendships become similar to kinships - Weston (1992) describes same-sex cohab as a 'quasi-marriage' and couples are now starting to cohabit as stable partners - Allan & Crow argue that the absence of legal frameworks such as civil partnerships and relationships means that same sex partners have had to negotiate their commitment responsibilities more than married couples - Einasdottir (2011) argues that whilst many same sex couples welcome the opportunity to legalise their relationship others fear it may limit the flexibility and negotiability of relationships.

Question 26

One person households (4 stats)

Answer 26

Fewer people today are living in couples: - 51% of all one person households are over 65 - By 2023, 35% of all adults will be single and living alone - Women over 75 are more likely - Pensioner one person households have more than doubled since 1961

Question 27

Reasons for the increase in one-person households (4)

Answer 27

- Increase in separation and divorce has created more one person households especially men under 65 - Following a divorce children are more likely to live with their mother, 88% of parents with care are female - The trend toward marrying later means people are remaining single for longer, people who are single has risen by half since 1971 - People are opting for 'creative singlehood', the deliberate choice to live alone

Question 28

Living Apart Together (two theorists)

Answer 28

This is a couple who are in a significant relationship but are not married or cohabiting (can't afford housing, religious preferences, previous children, work/travel, long distance, elderly care...) - Duncan and Phillips (2013) found that 1 in 10 adults are LAT, found that both choice and constraint are reasons why people do not live together, few choose to live apart - 20% of people see LAT as the ideal relationship

Question 29

Childbearing (5 stats)

Answer 29

In 2021, more children were born outside of marriage than within for the first time ever (51%). There was a recent dip in the amount of children being born overall, in 1964 the average was 2.95, in 2001 the average was 1.63, 2021 it was 2.27 - Women are choosing to have children later, the average age is 31, or choosing to remain childless

Question 30

Reasons for the changes in childbearing (4)

Answer 30

1. Decline in stigma, increase in cohab 2. Women are having children later, which causes a decrease in family sizes and an increase in those remaining childless 3. Children are expensive 4. Women choosing to focus on their careers instead of starting a family

Question 31

Lone-parent families (2 stats)

Answer 31

- 15% of families in the UK are lone parent families (2022) because of divorce - 84% of these are headed by lone mothers - A child living with a lone parent is twice as likely to be in poverty as a child living with two parents, primary socialisation also isn't as effective with a lone parent family

Question 32

Charles Murray, New Right (1984) view on lone parent families

Answer 32

Sees lone parent families as problematic for society as they rely on the welfare state and they are generally female headed, which produces delinquent boys who lack a male role model - Creates a 'dependency culture' in which people take for granted that the state with provide for them. Murray would like to abolish the welfare state (relying on benefits)

Question 32

Reasons for the change of lone-parent families (3, two theorists)

Answer 32

1. Increase in divorce and separation and unmarried women having children - linked to decline in stigma 2. Belief that women are by nature suited to an 'expressive' nurturing role, fathers don't seek custody 3. Men are less willing to give up work for children Renvoize (1985), found that professional women were able to support their children without the father's involvement Cashmore (1985), found that some working class women chose to live on benefits without a partner because they had experience abuse

Question 33

AO3 for Charles Murray's view on lone parent families

Answer 33

Critics argue that welfare benefits are far from generous and lone parent families are far from more likely to live in poverty because: - Lack of affordable childcare means lone parents can't work, 31% unemployed - Most lone parents are women who generally earn less than men - Failure of fathers to pay maintenance especially if they have formed a second family to support

Question 34

Stepfamilies (1 stat, five theorists)

Answer 34

Often called 'reconstituted families' account for 10% of all families with dependent children in Britain - Ferri & Smith (1998), found that stepfamilies are very similar to first families and stepparent involvement is often positive - Allan & Crow (2001), found that stepfamilies often face problems of divided loyalty with the non-resident parent where tension can occur - McCarthy et al (2003), says there is diversity in stepfamilies so we should speak of them as stepfamilies and not 'the step family'

Question 35

Reasons for the change in stepfamilies (4)

Answer 35

1. Increase in divorce and separation 2. More children are from the woman's side because children are more likely to stay with the mother 3. Greater risk of poverty because the stepfather may be supporting other families 4. Tensions faced due to lack of social norms about behaviour

Question 36

Black family patterns (2 stats)

Answer 36

Black African and Black Caribbean people have higher proportion of lone parent families. In 2011, 24% of families with this ethnic background were lone parent households. (Compared to only 9% of Asian families) - High rate of female headed lone parent families has been seen to be caused by family disorganisation linked to slavery and high levels of unemployment - High levels of male unemployment and discrimination have meant that black men are less able to provide for their family

Question 37

AO3 for black family patterns (two theorists)

Answer 37

Mirza (1997) - argues that high rate of lone parent female headed families is not a result of disorganisation but reflects the independence that is placed on black women Reynolds (2010) - says the stats are misleading as quite often what appears to be lone parent families are in fact stable, supportive but non-cohabiting relationships

Question 38

Asian family patterns (one theorist)

Answer 38

Bangladeshi, Pakistani and Indian households tend to be bigger than those of other ethnic groups. - Asian family households tend to have three generations living under the same roof (extended family). - Ballard (1982) suggests that extended family offered and important role for migrants in the 1950s and 60s with housing, financial and childcare support + childcare is free, elderly care is free and division of bills - crowding, lack of privacy, conflicts and illness

Question 39

Extended family today (two theorist)

Answer 39

Extended family is prevalent in Asian families, however in the modern day industrial society, nuclear families are more common in the UK. Charles (2008) found that three generation family all living under one roof is now extinct Willmott (1988) argues a 'dispersed extended family' where families may not live under one roof yet remain in frequent contact. This provides emotional, financial and childcare support

Question 40

The 'beanpole' family (one theorist)

Answer 40

Brannen (2003) describes extended family as being 'long and thin': - It is extended vertically, (up and down) through three or more generations, grandparents parents and children - It is not extended horizontally, (sideways) it doesn't contain aunts, uncles, cousins ect. Beanpole families may be the result of two demographic changes: increased life expectancy and smaller family sizes

Question 41

Extended family - obligation to relatives (three theorists)

Answer 41

Finch & Mason (1993) - found over 90% of people had given or received financial help and about half cared for a sick relative Cheal (2002) - found that there were gender patterns in terms of obligations e.g. when personal care for an elderly woman is needed, a daughter or daughter in law is preferred. Sons are rarely chosen as a caregiver, however daughters are rarely chosen to provide money