Theory and Methods Topic 5 - observations Flashcards
Non-participant observation
The researcher observes the group without taking part e.g. using a two way mirror to observe children playing. Often the participants will not be aware they are being observed (this can raise ethical issues) allowing researchers to observe people in their normal setting and avoid Hawthorne Effect
Participant observation
The researcher joins in the group/community participating in the activities over a period of time and tries to become accepted
Covert observation
The study is carried out ‘under cover’ with the researchers’ real identity and purpose concealed from the group being studied. The researcher takes on a false identity, usually becoming one of the group, to avoid disruption to the group’s normal behaviour
Overt observation
The researcher asks for permission/consent beforehand and makes their true purpose known to the group and is open about their research and aims before conducting research
Stage 1 of participant observations (two theorists)
Getting out:
The researcher needs to gain entry to the group (some easier than others)
- Making contact: this can depend on personal skills, having connections or chance. Fairhurst (1977) found herself hospitalised and used the opportunity to conduct a study on being a patient
- Acceptance: the researcher needs to win trust and acceptance of the group. Griffin (1962) used medication and sun lamp treatments to change his skin colour while researching racism
Stage 2 of participant observations (two theorists)
Staying in:
- ‘Going native’ is one potential problem of participant observations which means getting involved with the group. Punch (1979) found that whilst trying to be accepted by the Amsterdam police he was observing he found himself acting as a ‘policeman’ himself
- Venkatesh (2009), took part in beating up the boyfriend of an abused teenager. He used overt participant observation, being able to become accepted by the gang members
Stage 3 of participant observations (one theorist)
Getting out:
- Poses issues such as leaving the group without damaging relationships and becoming detached enough to write an impartial and accurate account.
- Patrick (1973) whilst covertly researching a Glasgow gang, was so disturbed by the violence he abandoned the study
- Some observers feel they are prevented from disclosing everything about the group because of loyalty and fear
Practical advantages of participant observations (2, one theorist)
- Flexibility - much more flexible than questionnaires and interviews because it doesn’t require a set list of questions
- Sometimes the only way to study deviant groups - Yablonsky (1973) points out that a teenage gang is likely to see researchers who come armed with questionnaires as unwelcome representatives of authority
Ethical advantage of participant observations
- Informed consent - researchers are transparent about their role and purpose in the study, ensuring participants understand the nature of the observation and can make an informed decision to participate
Theoretical advantage of participant observations (2)
- High in validity - researchers can build a relationship of trust so it’s argued that more valid data is produced, also obtains qualitative data
‘Verstehen’ - a German word meaning empathy, or an understanding that comes from putting yourself in another one’s shoes. Closeness to people’s reality means we can get valid, authentic data
Practical disadvantages of participant observations (3, two theorists)
- Time consuming - participant observations can take much longer, e.g. Whyte’s study took him 4 years to complete
- Personal characteristics - can restrict the kinds of groups that are being studied (age, gender, ethnicity). Downes and Rock explain “not everyone would pass uneventfully into the world of punk rockers or Hell’s Angels”.
- Cost - researcher needs to be fully trained with personal skills to be able to get in to the group they’re studying
Ethical disadvantage of participant observations
- Raises ethical concerns such as deceiving people to gain information or participating in illegal/immoral activities. ‘Going Native’ makes it difficult to remain objective
Theoretical disadvantages of participant observations (5)
- Validity - loyalty to the group could lead to sociologist concealing sensitive information which denies those reading a full objective account. Risk of ‘Hawthorne Effect’
- Reliability - research relies on personal skills and characteristics which means it is unlikely any other investigator would be able to replicate the original study
- Representativeness - usually very small samples and the groups are selected by chance which doesn’t provide the basis for making generalisations
- Lack of objectivity - participant observations attract sociologists why sympathise with the ‘under dog’ therefore the study might be biased.
- Lack of concept or structure - structural theorists argue observation focusses too much on the micro-level, ignoring structural forces which shape our behaviour
Practical advantage of overt observation
- Access - some participants are more likely to allow observers full access into their organisation if consent/permission is asked the correct way. Allows the researcher to ask naïve, but important questions
Ethical advantage of overt observations
- Avoids ethical (moral) problems such as deception, observer’s physical safety is less at risk as the researcher won’t be expected to join in with activities
Theoretical advantage of overt observation
- High in validity - observer can make notes and ask follow up questions without fearing negative consequences. Increases the validity of the research
Practical disadvantages of overt observations (3, one theorist)
- Refusing permission to observe - e.g. Punch (1979) finished observing police officers in Amsterdam and was told “when you were with us we only let you see what we wanted you to”.
- Time - overt observations can be quite time-consuming as they have to record behaviours. Sometimes the behaviour they want might be displayed after several attempts, not right away
- Cost - can be expensive if researchers have to buy equipment to help them observe/record, might also need to recruit/pay observers
Ethical disadvantage of overt observation
- Uncomfortable - informed consent is obtained but observers can make people feel uncomfortable just by their presence. Intrusive and an invasion of privacy
Theoretical disadvantages of overt observation (2)
- Validity - creates ‘Hawthorne Effect’ where those who know they’re being observed may begin to act differently as a result, which affects validity of data
- Lack of representativeness - may not produce data that is readily generalizable to broader populations or contexts because of the limitations of time and resources
Practical advantages of covert observations (2, one theorist)
- Access to sensitive or restricted environments - may be difficult or impossible, but covert observations can provide access to sensitive or restricted areas without suspicion. E.g. Humphrey’s ‘Tea Room Trade’ studies gay men’s encounters in public toilets and found, “there is only one way to watch highly discreditable behaviour and that is to pretend to be in the same boat as those engaging in it”.
- Study of unethical or illegal behaviour - covert observations may be the only way to study these as participants are unaware they’re being watched
Ethical advantages of covert observations (3)
- Exploration of sensitive topics - more feasible using covert observations especially when overt may lead to biased or incomplete data due to hesitancy to disclose information
- Building a rapport - if you do manage to ‘get in’ with the group you’re studying, you can form relationships which many benefit the research by helping people open up to you
- Avoidance of harm to researcher - researcher may assert than in some situations informed consent could lead to harm for them, covert protects them from violence
Theoretical advantages of covert observations (2)
- No Hawthorne effect/high validity - participants aren’t aware that they’re being observed which is advantageous in situations where the goal is to understand behaviour
- Ecological validity - covert observations can capture true, accurate behaviours because participants are unaware they are being observed
Practical disadvantages of covert observations (3, one theorist)
- Time - run the risk of being time consuming as the researcher may need to invest a significant amount of time and effort in to planning and executing covert strategies
- Limited access - in some situations gaining access can be difficult. Researchers may need to find creative ways to gain entry or access
- Skilled researcher - requires them to keep up with an act or have detailed knowledge about the group before joining e.g. Patrick (1973) was almost found out when he bought his suit with cash instead of credit (something gangs don’t do)
Ethical disadvantages of covert observations (4)
- Immoral/illegal activities - researcher may have to participate in criminal groups, could cause physical harm
- Moral/legal obligation - as a witness, the observer may have a legal obligation or duty to report them to the police
- Unethical to leave the group - researchers may have to lie about their reasons for leaving the group when research ends, could lead to feelings of betrayal
- Deception - lying to participants about the researcher’s true identity
