Families and Households Topic 7 - demography Flashcards
(50 cards)
Births rate definition
The number of births affects the population size. Sociologists use the concept of birth rate to measure births.
The birth rate is the number of live births per one thousand of the population per year.
The changes in birth rates over the years
There has been a long term decline in the number of births since 1900. In that year the BR was 28.7 but by 2014 had fallen to 12.2
There have been fluctuations in births -> the first two came after the world wars, and the third in the 1960s because of the Hippie movement.
Total fertility rate definition
TFR is the average number of children women will have during their fertile years.
The changes in fertility rate over the years
The UK’s TFR has risen from 2020-2021, most likely due to the COVID lockdown. However it has been trending downwards in the last decade:
1964 -> 2.93 per woman
2020 -> 1.58 per woman
2021 -> 1.61 per woman
What do the changes in birth rate and fertility rate reflect?
- More women remaining childless than in the past
- More women are postponing having children; the average age is 31 (as of 2021) and fertility rates for 30-40 year olds are on the increase.
How changing positions of women leads to a decline in birth rate (one theorist):
- Legal equality with men including the right to vote
- Increase in educational opportunities, girls now do better than boys. Harper (2012) argues this has led to women being more educated and rejecting their traditional female roles to pursue education and careers.
- More women in paid employment, plus laws such as Equal Pay Act 1970 and Sex Discrimination Act 1975
- Changes in attitudes to family life and women’s roles
- Easier access to divorce
- Access to abortion and reliable contraception
How decline in infant mortality rate has led to a decline in the birth rate:
‘Infant mortality rate’ measures the number of infants who die before their first birthday, per thousand babies born alive per year
1990 -> IMR was 150
1950 -> IMR was 31
2021 -> IMR was 4
The IMR dropped due to: improved housing and better sanitation, better nutrition, better knowledge of hygiene, improved services for mothers and babies, mass immunisation, antibiotics and improved midwifery
AO3 for the fall in IMR (two theorists)
Brass and Kabir (1978) argue that the trend in small families did not start in rural areas where the IMR first began to fall, but in urban areas where the IMR remained higher for longer.
How children becoming an economic liability has led to the decline in birth rate:
Until the late 19th century, children were economic assets because they were sent to work and earned an income, however they have gradually become a liability.
- Laws banning child labour, introducing compulsory schooling and raising the school leaving age means that children remain dependent for longer
- Changing norms about what children have a right to expect from their parents in material terms means that the cost of bringing up a child has risen
- As a result of these financial pressures, parents are choosing to have a smaller family
How child centredness has led to the decline in birth rates:
The increasing child centredness of both family and society as a whole means that childhood is now socially constructed as a uniquely important period in the individual’s life. In terms of family size this has seen a shift from ‘quantity to quality’ - parents now have fewer children and lavish more attention and resources on these.
Future trends in birth rates
Family sizes have fallen over the last century, however there was a slight increase in the mid 2000’s.
One reason for the increase was immigration, because on average mothers from outside the UK have a higher fertility rate, babies born from mothers outside of the UK accounted for 25% of all births in 2011.
- Expects the annual births to be fairly consistent at around 800,000 per year.
The dependency ratio
The relationship between the size of the working population and the size of the non-working/dependent part of the population.
- Children make up a large part of the dependency ratio, so a fall in the number of children in the short term reduces the ‘burden of dependency’ of the working population
Death rate definition
The death rate is the number of deaths per thousand of the population per year
- 1900 DR was 19
- 2011 DR was 8.7
- 2020 DR was 10.3
The changes in death rates over the years (one theorist):
The DR began falling from 1870 but rose slightly during 1930s-40s. Since 1950 it has declined, with the exception of the COVID 19 pandemic creating an anomaly.
Tranter (1996) argues that over three quarters of the decline in the death rate from 1850 to 1970 was due to the fall in deaths from infectious diseases such as diphtheria, TB, measles, smallpox and typhoid.
How improved nutrition has led to the decline in death rate (one theorist):
Mckeown (1972) argues that improved nutrition accounted for over half the reduction in death rates - particularly deaths from TB.
Better nutrition meant there was increased resistance to infection and increased survival rates of those who did get infected.
AO3 for improved nutrition decreasing death rates
This does not explain why women, who received the smallest share of food, lived longer than males. Also Mckeown fails to explain why some deaths from infectious diseases actually rose at the time nutrition improved e.g. measles
How medical intervention has led to the decline in death rate:
Before 1950s medical knowledge played almost no part in reducing the death rate and in some cases actually caused it.
Since 1950s, improved medical techniques, knowledge and organisations has led to the reduce in the death rate, such as - blood transfusions, antibiotics, improved maternity care and setting up the NHS
How smoking and diet has led to the decline in death rate (one theorist):
Harper argues the decrease in death rate in recent times has not been down to medical improvements but from people not smoking. But in the 21st century obesity has replaced smoking - in 2012 one quarter of UK adults were obese
- Harper suggests we may be moving to a more ‘American’ health culture where obesity levels are high but long lifespan is achieved through the use of medicine
How public health measures have led to a decline in death rate:
In the 20th century effective central and local government had the power to pass laws that led to the improvement in public health and the quality of environment, including:
- improvement in housing
- purer drinking water
- laws to combat the adulteration of food
- improved sewage methods
- clean air act to reduce pollution
How other social changes have led to the decline in death rate:
- The decline in dangerous manual occupations such as mining
- Smaller families reduced the rate of transmission of infection
- Greater public knowledge about the causes of illness
-Lifestyle changes especially in the number of men who smoke - Higher incomes = healthier lifestyles
Life expectancy definition
This refers to the average number of years a person can be expected to live
- Males born in 1900 could expect to live until 50 (females 57)
- Males born in 2020 can expect to live for 79 years (females 83)
‘Radical longevity’ (one theorist)
Harper argues this will soon be achieved, with many more people living over 100. However there as class, gender and regional differences e.g. working class men in unskilled jobs are three times more likely to die before their birthday compared with men in managerial or professional jobs
The ageing population
A consequence on increased life expectancy, decline in infant mortality and decline in infertility means we have an ageing population in the UK. The average age is rising ->
- 1971, 34.1 years
- 2021, 40.7 years
- 2037, 42.8 years
The three effects/consequences of an ageing population:
- Public services - older people, specifically 75 or over consume a larger proportion of health and social care than any other group
- One person pensioner households - the number of pensioners living alone has increased, and 12.5% of households are now one person. Most are female as women tend to live longer than men
- Dependency ratio - the non working youth and the non working old are economically dependent group who need to be provided for by those who are of working age
